Editorial Record: Submitted August 5, 2024. Revised and accepted December 4, 2025.
Author
Virginia Harrison Assistant Professor Clemson University South Carolina, USA Email: vsharri@g.clemson.edu
ABSTRACT
This class-tested GIFT demonstrates the value of service-learning in an academic master’s degree quantitative methods course. Students in small groups developed a theory-driven research project to help a local nonprofit understand donation motivations among the undergraduate student body. The assignment required them to build public relations and communications theory while developing meaningful takeaways for the partner nonprofit. Students reported feeling less intimidated by quantitative methods, learning principles of scholarly research, and feeling good about helping their community. The nonprofit partner also said they valued the data collected by the students for their fundraising planning. The GIFT illustrates how a quantitative research assignment with a real-world application may serve a classroom of communication students who express different goals—either pursuing a Ph.D. or entering the profession—while benefiting town-gown relations.
This teaching brief presents an end-of-course essay assignment that tasks graduate students to share their expertise publicly through a thought leadership-style article. Through stepping out of the role of “learner” and into the role of “expert” and publishing their articles on LinkedIn, students face the heightened stakes of sharing their insights beyond the classroom walls. By highlighting key knowledge, skills, and abilities they have gained through their graduate education, students can demonstrate the unique perspective and value they offer future employers while further developing their own professional brand. This assignment was developed for a course focused on accessibility, diversity, and inclusion on social media; however, the thought-leadership style essay can be adapted to fit the learning outcomes of many public relations courses.
Editorial Record: Submitted December 18, 2024. Revised July 18, 2025. Accepted September 22, 2025.
Authors
Ruoyu Sun Assistant Professor University of Georgia Georgia, USA Email: rsun@uga.edu
Yan Jin Professor University of Georgia Georgia, USA Email: yanjin@uga.edu
Wenqing Zhao Ph.D. Candidate University of Georgia Georgia, USA Email: Wenqing.Zhao@uga.edu
ABSTRACT
The rise of Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) introduces new challenges to crisis communication. This teaching brief describes a crisis simulation exercise, conducted separately in two crisis communication classes at a university in the United States, where undergraduate public relations students apply crisis communication theories to address a GenAI misuse scenario based on the artificial intelligence (AI) scandal involving Sports Illustrated. Students assume roles of crisis management team members, board members, or journalists to perform specific tasks throughout the simulation. A mock press conference is integrated into the simulation, enabling students to engage in real-world crisis communication dynamics and practice their crisis communication skills in a realistic, high pressure setting. Afterward, the crisis responses developed in each class are shared for critique, objective feedback, and reflective learning.
Editorial Record: Submitted October 18, 2024. Accepted November 19, 2025.
Authors
Denisse Vasquez-Guevara Assistant Professor California State Polytechnic University, Pomona California, USA Email: denissev@cpp.edu
ABSTRACT
Audience analysis is crucial for planning and developing effective communication strategies. It involves gaining a deeper understanding of audience demographics and psychographic data to create strategies that engage audiences around the specific goals of an organization, brand, or public figure. Through the theoretical lens of audience analysis theories in strategic communication and marketing, diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) principles and ethics, and arts-based pedagogical techniques, this teaching brief explores audience personas and the practical application of artificial intelligence (AI) prompt engineering for image generation. Through this assignment, students enhanced their understanding of audience analysis and segmentation while practicing the ethical use of AI guided by DEI guidelines. Specifically, students learned how to represent audience diversity in research data collection equally, audience segmentation profile descriptions that reflect respectful and realistic representations of gender identities and race, detailing the visual and textual descriptions of their needs, interests, and culture. This class assignment could be useful for undergraduate courses such as public speaking, public relations, strategic communication, communication research, public relations campaigns, and social media marketing.
Editorial Record: Submitted Record May 28, 2024. Accepted July 26, 2024.
Corinne Dalelio Associate Professor Coastal Carolina University South Carolina, USA Email: cdalelio@coastal.edu
ABSTRACT
Course requirements involving submissions on publicly viewable websites have the potential to cross or violate privacy boundaries. Building on Petronio’s Communication Privacy Management Theory, I reflect on these challenges and the ways that I have found to give students choices and control over both their uses and personal information, and offer an example of such strategies through assignments I use in teaching concepts related to digital literacy, which I call “Online Activity Journals.”
Editorial Record: Submitted Record June 9, 2023. Accepted August 30, 2023. Published October 2024.
Author
Katie R. Place Professor School of Communications Quinnipiac University Connecticut, USA Email: Katie.Place@quinnipiac.edu
ABSTRACT
This great idea for teaching (GIFT) aims to help undergraduate or graduate students review extant social media and web ethics policies and then apply their knowledge to the development of their own ethics policy. This GIFT guides educators through the rationale of the study, the steps of the study, a teaching note regarding the study, and relevant references.
Elizabeth L. Toth Professor Emerita University of Maryland Maryland, USA Email: eltoth@umd.edu
ABSTRACT
This article further examines the 2023 quantitative research by the Commission on Public Relations Education (CPRE) on KSAs and hiring characteristics desired and delivered/found as reported by public relations educators and practitioners. Specifically, the examination considers where significant differences between the groups exist. Another focus was investigating groupings of hiring characteristics between public relations educators and practitioners. Finally, a comparison of the CPRE recommended six-course standard was conducted between educators in the U.S. and those located outside the U.S. The study aims to guide curricular decisions for educators across the globe as well as foster conversations between educators and practitioners in public relations.
Keywords: Public relations education, KSAs, hiring characteristics, PR coursework
To cite this article: Shen, H., Bourland-Davis, P., & Toth, E.L. . (2024). CPRE Study: Educator/practitioner perceptions of student preparation and international comparisons of the six-course standard. Journal of Public Relations Education, 10(1), 6-46. https://journalofpreducation.com/?p=4571
Editorial Record: Submitted June 9, 2023. Revised September 22, 2023. Accepted November 13, 2023. Published March 2024.
Author
Christie Kleinmann Professor College of Liberal Arts & Social Sciences Belmont University Tennessee, USA Email: christie.kleinmann@belmont.edu
ABSTRACT
According to the 2018 “Fast Forward” report by the Commission on Public Relations Education, an understanding of ethics is crucial to effective public relations practice. Yet, this latest report notes a gap between ethical knowledge and ethical practice. Simply stated, professionals do not believe that entry-level practitioners are prepared for the ethical demands of modern public relations practice. This article proposes an assignment to address this concern. Using a reflective learning model, the Perspectives: Quiet Place Journal assignment seeks to deepen students’ understanding of ethical principles and develop students’ practice of ethical decision making.
According to the 2018 report by the Commission on Public Relations Education, an understanding of ethics is crucial to effective public relations practice; yet this report notes a gap between ethical knowledge and ethical practice (Commission on Public Relations Education, 2018). Simply stated, professionals do not believe that entry- level practitioners are prepared for the ethical demands of modern public relations practice. In response, this article introduces a reflective learning assignment that educators can use to deepen students’ understanding of ethical principles and develop students’ practice of ethical decision making.
The Quiet Place (QP) Journal is a series of reflective journal prompts on ethical literacy and decision making. Its goal is to develop the ethical understanding and application skills of emerging public relations professionals. Students are instructed to find a quiet place and be still for 30 minutes. In that stillness, students are asked to complete an ethical activity and reflect on the experience. There are six journals in the series: values, competencies, strengths, perspectives, change, and ethical promises. The Perspectives: QP Journal will be presented here.
This assignment is completed at the midpoint of the course and transitions student learning from knowledge of ethical concepts to application of ethical concepts. In the assignment, students complete an ethical simulation and reflect on their decision making process.
Rationale
The Perspectives: QP Journal assignment was developed in response to the CPRE’s 2018 report — Fast forward: Foundations and future state, educators and practitioners on the importance of ethics in public relations education as well as the power of silence and reflection to enhance student learning. The report ranked ethics as the top knowledge area for students (CPRE, 2018). Specifically, the report noted that students need to understand ethical philosophies and be able to utilize ethical decision making processes. The Perspectives: QP Journal addresses this need by helping students use key ethical philosophies in an ethical decision making process and reflect on how this process guides their own personal ethical practice.
The CPRE (2018) report also noted the importance of teaching ethical decision making processes. It said that greater education on ethical decision making was needed “to help prepare the next generation to work in an environment that does not always value truth” (p. 68). This focus is important as the report noted that a gap exists between ethical knowledge and ethical practice. Thus, guiding students through the ethical decision making process helps students recognize the importance of ethical concepts and how to apply these concepts to real-world situations. The Perspectives: QP Journal focuses on this need by leading students through a perspective switching exercise. In this assignment, students are asked to complete the Moral Machine (2017), an ethical simulation of self-driving cars, but to do so from different perspectives and then reflect on their decision making process. In doing so, students engage in ethical decision making, discovering how perspectives impact ethical outcomes and recognizing how they often unknowingly follow certain ethical philosophies to arrive at a decision.
The Perspectives: QP Journal is also important from a scholarship of teaching and learning (SoTL) perspective. SoTL research has demonstrated the importance of quietness and reflection when dealing with abstract ideas, such as ethics (Eswaran, 2021). The Perspectives: QP journal helps students do so by requiring them to find a quiet place to think and reflect. The inclusion of a quiet place is an important component of the assignment. Eswaran (2021) said that we “have forgotten (or even fear) quiet. We live in a world full of noise and chatter. A world wherein our daily routines are inundated with distractions and responsibilities” (para. 33). Yet, a routine of silence can help individuals understand how they perceive the world and how this perception impacts behavior (Larsen et. al., 2016).
Reflective practice is also important in ethics education. Helyer (2015) found that the process of reflection utilizes knowledge that “lies deep within – so deep it is often taken for granted and not explicitly acknowledged, but it is the data humans use to make instinctive decisions based upon accumulated knowledge from past actions and experience” (p. 22). Thus, reflective practice through the Perspectives: QP Journal enables the invisible aspects of ethics to become visible, allowing students to examine how their ethics guide their behavior.
Assignment Learning Objectives
The overall goal of the Perspectives: QP Journal is to engage students in ethical thinking and bridge the gap between ethical knowledge and practice through reflective learning. As a result of this assignment, students will be able to:
Apply ethical philosophies in an ethical situation.
Assess an ethical situation from different perspectives.
Use ethical decision making processes to make an ethical decision.
Identify the ethical philosophies that guide their ethical decisions.
Employ the use of silence and reflection to guide future ethical practice.
Connection to Public Relations Practice and/or Theory
The Perspectives: QP Journal offers several connections to public relations practice and theory. The assignment reinforces key ethical philosophies and considers the application of these philosophies in an ethical decision making process. The assignment also teaches students the importance of reflection and its ability to transform an abstract concept such as ethics into practical application. This connection is important as educators cannot prepare students for every future ethical situation.
Rather, the Perspectives: QP Journal offers students the foundation and tools needed to approach future ethical situations with confidence.
How the Assignment was Class-Tested
The Perspectives: QP Journal has been an assignment in an asynchronous online public relations ethics course for the past three semesters. The assignment is assessed qualitatively by a final course reflection termed the “souvenirs of the class.” This reflection asks students to identify two or three souvenirs from the class, or things they will take with them and use later either personally or professionally. By design, this reflection does not ask specifically about the Perspectives: QP Journal. A key aspect of the assessment is to determine if the QP Journal series or the specific Perspectives: QP Journal assignment emerged as a resonant component of the course.
Empirical Evidence of Learning Outcomes/Assessment
Over the past three semesters, seven themes or souvenirs emerged from the souvenir course assessment. Five of the themes related to the Perspectives: QP Journal assignment. Twenty-six percent of students identified the Perspectives: QP Journal prompt as a key souvenir from the course. Students discussed the value of perspective switching to better understand ethical situations and the perspectives of others. One student said, “I sometimes have difficulty seeing from someone else’s perspective. This was a VERY important topic to write about because, in the real world, there will be many disagreements,.” Another student echoed the importance of assuming others’ perspectives, saying “The last but DEFINITELY not least (possibly most important) souvenir was about perspectives. I think that the world would be so much better if we took a little bit of time to stand where our ‘opposers’ come from, or where their thought processes are stemming in ANY subject!” As a result of this assignment, students also noted the importance of decision making tools such as the Potter Box to help them make ethical decisions. One student said, “There have been many times in my life when I have been faced with an ethical dilemma, but I never really knew how to work through the problem. Learning about the Potter Box gave me an easy way to work through ethical problems, and I know that when I am faced with ethical problems in the future, I will remember the Potter Box and put it to use.” Finally, students noted that the Perspectives: QP Journal would help them in their future work. One student noted, “This journal entry helped me think about how important it is to think about the perspectives of others in all situations. I think this will help me a lot in the future in both my personal and professional life.”
The reflective practice of the Perspectives: QP Journal also emerged as a key souvenir with 21% of students identifying this format as a significant component of their ethical learning. One student said, “I really enjoyed the quiet place journals. It gave me time to really think about each topic and gave me an opportunity to reflect on how I was feeling.” Another student commented, “I actually looked forward to these each week. Truly it was a time that pushed me to sit down in my own thoughts and just reflect and write. I don’t do this often but like to! It helped me to think outside of the box and think deeper about my thoughts and feelings.” This reflective practice also helped students connect classroom learning with life experience. “Journaling allows me to reflect on everything I have learned and put it into a tangible form. Instead of just cruising through the class and trying to get readings done, I was able to actually reflect on what I was learning rather than just going through the motions. I hope to bring this concept to all future career and personal endeavors,” one student said.
Students recognized the Perspectives: QP Journal as a key bridge between knowing ethical concepts and practicing ethics. One student said, “The information learned was valuable, but I most enjoyed getting to spend some quiet time each week reflecting on important and useful topics. I want to continue this practice throughout my work journey.” Another student echoed this sentiment, adding that the assignment “helped me get a better understanding of the material and how to apply it to real life situations. This helps me in the future because the more I understand something, the more likely I am to apply it my own life and experiences.” As a result, the Perspectives: QP Journal offered a tangible way for students to think deeply about the abstract concept of ethics and make applications. It also gave students a life-long learning tool that can be used to address future ethical issues.
Template Assignment Guide
Assignment Guide for Perspectives: Quiet Place Journal
Assignment Introduction
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology created the Moral Machine (2017) to study our ethical decision making in the context of self-driving cars. In this online simulation, an individual is presented with 13 scenarios in which a collision involving an autonomous vehicle is unavoidable. The scenarios include a combination of passengers and pedestrians and asks who the individual would spare.
In the Perspectives: QP Journal we will use this simulation to understand the ethical philosophies and assess how different perspectives impact ethical decision making.
Assignment Resources
To prepare for this assignment, review the ethical philosophies discussed in Part I and read Chapter 16 on ethical decision making in Ethics in Public Relations: A Guide to Best Practice by Patricia Parsons. Another good resource on ethical philosophies is the Core Ethical Principles module in The Arthur W. Page Center Public Relations EthicsTraining.
Assignment Instructions
This assignment has two parts: (1) complete the “Moral Machine” simulation, and (2) then in essay-format, reflect on your experience by responding to the guiding questions below.
Part 1. Complete the “Moral Machine” simulation a minimum of six times. The first three times do so as the driver of the car. Pay attention to the decisions you make in each scenario. Then complete the simulation three more times but from three different perspectives. You might complete the simulation from the perspective of a passenger, from the perspective of the driver of an oncoming car, or as the owner of the dog who ran out in front of the car. The key is to choose a different perspective each time you complete the simulation.
Part 2. Reflect on the experience using the questions below as a guide.
After completing the simulation, reflect on your decisions. When you were the driver of the car, what guided your decisions? How did these guides relate to the ethical philosophies?
Then reflect on the simulation when completed from perspectives of others. Did your decisions change based on the perspective? How might this simulation relate to ethical decision making in public relations?
Finally, explain how this simulation and reflection might be helpful in your current and future practice of ethical public relations.
Assignment Rules
In order to complete this assignment effectively, follow the three rules of the Perspectives: QP Journal:
Find a space where you can be quiet and reflective. Spend a minimum of 30 minutes in quiet reflection.
Be honest with yourself. While this assignment will be shared with me, you are the primary audience, so be honest with yourself. If there is something that you want to keep private, black-out those portions from the entry.
Be gracious to yourself. This assignment is a space to explore, learn, and grow in our ethical maturity.
Assignment Grading Criteria or Rubric
The Perspectives: QP Journal is graded on engagement and completion. Researchers found that the effectiveness of reflective learning is greatly reduced when students are concerned about getting the “right answer” (Persson, et. al, 2018). Instead SoTL literature suggests that reflection should be used for developmental assignments, often without credit assigned (Chang, 2019). In an online course structure, if an assignment does not have a point value, students often omit the assignment. As a result, the Perspectives: QP Journal does assign credit, but it is a low-stakes completion assignment. Assessment is based on the student’s acknowledgment that they met the expected timeframe, that they thoughtfully engaged in reflective practice, and that the assignment was submitted by the deadline.
SoTL research also noted that students will often be less honest in reflective assignments and instead try to write what they believe the instructor wants to hear (Chang, 2019). To combat this drawback, students could blackout portions of their QP Journal entries that they felt were too personal or that they did not want to share with the instructor. This technique allowed students the space to be more honest and feel a greater sense of safety in their reflection.
Finally, for reflective learning to be effective, instructor involvement is critical. To facilitate student engagement, it is important for an instructor to thoughtfully dialogue with the student in the Perspectives: QP Journal. The two-way dialogue gives the instructor an opportunity to guide the student to deeper reflection by asking follow-up questions or requesting more explanation on a point or connection. Typically, this two-way interaction is all that is needed to help students remain engaged with the assignment. With these issues in mind, the following grading rubric was developed.
Grading Criteria
The Perspectives: QP Journal is a completion-based assignment worth 25 points. Credit is based on the following criteria:
The student’s assignment was a minimum of 500 words.
The student’s assignment met the stated deadline.
The student engaged in thoughtful reflection and in written dialogue with the instructor.
Teaching Note
The Perspectives: QP Journal has been used for the last three semesters in an online asynchronous public relations ethics course. The assignment occurs near the midpoint of the course and transitions course content from understanding ethical concepts and theories to applying these concepts through decision making processes.
While used in a public relations ethics course, the Perspectives: QP Journal can also be used in an ethics unit of any public relations/ communication course. The assignment reinforces ethical philosophies by helping students apply these philosophies in a simulation. The assignment would also be useful in a public relations management or leadership course as the assignment introduces students to the ethical decision making process. Further, the perspective switching component of the assignment helps students see different perspectives, which would work well in a public relations cases course. Finally, the introspective, reflective format of the assignment makes it ideal for an online course.
No matter the specific course, the Perspectives: QP Journal works best when the instructor is engaged with the students. The assignment becomes a dialogue between the student and the instructor, a space where the instructor can affirm, ask additional questions, and share observations.
Research has found that the element of reflecting and sharing improves student learning and offers a sense of belonging and social support (Chang, 2019). As a result, the instructor should respond thoughtfully to each student. Doing so helps create the safe space necessary for students to feel comfortable to share. In the early stages of implementing this assignment, the importance of dialogue with students was missed. The Perspectives: QP Journal was originally set up as a graded assignment, and instructor comments were provided in the grading feedback. Student received the instructor’s response, but could not reply to the instructor.
Many students instigated dialogue by emailing the instructor directly to respond to the instructor’s comments. Their initiative led to the realization that the assignment needed to be set up as a private two- way communication channel so that the student and instructor could converse back and forth easily. The move to two-way communication was revolutionary in student engagement with the assignment.
The drawback to the Perspectives: QP Journal is time. While rewarding, facilitating a dialogue with each student is immensely time consuming. A potential solution is to incorporate more collaborative reflection. Research shows that collaborative reflection highlights different perspectives and encourages students to see things differently and challenge their assumptions (Bowne et. al., 2010; Chang, 2019; Krutka et. al., 2014). Currently students may incorporate ideas from this assignment into class discussions, but are not required to do so. As a result, offering student-to-student collaborative reflection opportunities may reduce the time burden on the instructor while capitalizing on the benefits of collaborative reflection for the student.
Recommended Sources Related to the Assignment
There are several resources that support the Perspectives: QP Journal. Prior to the assignment, students are introduced to an overview of ethical decision making models by reading chapter 16 in Ethics in Public Relations: A Guide to Best Practice by Patricia Parsons (2016), which provides a resource on the ethical philosophies that are reinforced in the Perspectives: QP Journal. The online training modules from The ArthurW. Page Center Public Relations Ethics Training also provide resources for this assignment with a module two on core ethical principles and module four on ethical decision making (Kent, n.d.; Kleinmann, n.d.). Finally, engaging students through activities or simulations are important. The Moral Machine (2017), created by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is the simulation tool used for the Perspectives: QP Journal. Thus far, the Moral Machine (2017) has collected information from 2.3 million people and offers interesting conclusions on how people around the world approach ethical situations.
There are also several excellent resources on the reflective learning format used in the Perspectives: QP Journal. A few to note include Parker Palmer’s (2000) Let Your Life Speak: Listening for the Voice of Vocation and The Growth Mindset by Carol Dweck (2006). Both resources offer good information on the importance of reflective practices and its influence on a learning growth mindset.
In conclusion, the Perspectives: QP Journal assignment was successful in bridging the gap between ethical concepts and practice through reflective learning. Through this assignment students noted the importance of perspective switching and decision making tools such as the Potter Box, and committed to their usage when faced with ethical dilemmas. Students also identified the power of reflective processing as a tool to transfer abstract ethical concepts into concrete ethical practice. Most importantly, students affirmed that ethics matters, both personally and professionally, and recognized that while not always comfortable, doing the right thing is always necessary. One student summarized it best saying that through this assignment, “I learned the significance of doing what is ethical even when it is not the most convenient thing to do.”
References
Bowne, M., Cutler, K., DeBates, D., Gilkerson, D. & Stremmel, A. (2010). Pedagogical documentation and collaborative dialogue as tools of inquiry for pre-service teachers in early childhood education: An exploratory narrative. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10(2), 48-59. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ890715.pdf
Helyer, R. (2015). Learning through reflection: The critical role of reflection in work-based learning. Journal of Work-Applied Management, 7(1), 15-27. https://doi.org/10.1108/JWAM-10-2015-003.
Kleinmann, C. M. (n.d.). Module 2: Core ethical principles. The Arthur W. Page Center: Public relations ethics training. https://www.pagecentertraining.psu.edu/
Krutka, D. G., Bergman, D. J., Flores, R., Mason, K. & Jack, A. R. (2014).
Microblogging about teaching: Nurturing participatory cultures through collaborative online reflection with pre-service teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 40, 83-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2014.02.002
Larsen, D. P., London, D. A. & Emke, A. R. (2016). Using reflection to influence practice: Student perceptions of daily reflection in clinical education. Perspectives on Medical Education, 5(5), 285-
Palmer, P. J. (2000). Let your life speak: Listening for the voice of vocation. Wiley.
Parsons, P. (2016). Ethics in public relations: A guide to best practice. Kogan Page Limited.
Persson, E. K., Kvist, L. J. & Ekelin, M. (2018). Midwifery students’ experiences of learning through the use of written reflections – An interview study. Nurse Education in Practice, 30, 73-78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nepr.2018.01.005.
To cite this article: Kleinmann, C. (2024). The Perspectives Quiet Place Journal: Reflective learning to bridge the gap between ethical concepts and practice. Journal of Public Relations Education, 9(3), 86-100. https://journalofpreducation.com/?p=4278
Editorial Record: Submitted June 9, 2023. Revised October 1, and November 20, 2023. Accepted November 21, 2023. Published March 2024.
Author
Jasmine Gray Assistant Professor Communication Division Pepperdine University California, USA Email: jaz.gray@pepperdine.edu
Jacob Thompson Hussman School of Journalism and Media UNC-Chapel Hill North Carolina, USA Email: jacobthompson@unc.edu
ABSTRACT
In the last few years, the US social climate has been shaped by the COVID-19 pandemic as well as social unrest due to racial injustice. As instructors of a research methods course that traditionally focused on the needs of corporate clients, we wondered how these developments could inspire a new learning experience for students that encourages them to develop research skills through responding more directly to major life disruptions and the inequities revealed. We aimed to avoid compounding challenges our students faced while also giving them knowledge and skills that would empower them to address diversity and ethics in their future work as public relations professionals (CPRE, 2018). The result is a semester-long project that asks students to critically engage with questions of ethics and inequalities in research methods.
Our classrooms are spaces where students can practice using research skills to navigate the realities of our social world rather than reify false notions of neutrality, whether in research and strategic communication or in education as a whole (Freire, 2018). This GIFT asks students to spend their time and effort addressing significant social issues, including issues that coincide with current events and those that reflect a prior interest or passion for the student. The project increases student engagement by helping them see the research methods they learn as relevant to current challenges, and students build self-efficacy as they apply course objectives in reframing a societal obstacle as an opportunity for a positive impact (Anderson, 2004; Ineson et al., 2013; Leston-Bandiera, 2013; Chowdhury, n.d.). Students leave the course understanding how research methods are relevant to issues they care about and confident in their ability to conduct ethical, inclusive public relations research in their careers.
Assignment Rationale
Our primary objective in designing this assignment is to improve student engagement in public relations research methods courses. Although we were initially driven by the need to engage students during the shift to remote learning during COVID, improving engagement is always especially desirable in methods courses, which our students frequently cite as the most challenging. Our primary intervention is asking students to choose an organization and PR issue they find personally relevant for their semester-long project. By giving students a greater say in developing their project and the ability to choose a topic relevant to their career goals, we expect to see increased engagement and self- efficacy (Anderson, 2004; Leston-Bandiera, 2013). This increased sense of ownership will lead them to develop better research skills and feel confident applying those skills in professional settings as well as help them build ethics knowledge with an eye to real-world effects.
A second, and complementary, goal in designing this assignment is to better students’ ability to apply their research skills beyond the classroom as they move into careers as communication professionals. We hope that asking students to work on projects that they see as aligned with their personal interests and career goals will lead them to think critically about the potential strengths and weaknesses of each method as it might be employed in the real-world contexts they will eventually face. We ask students to go beyond designing and executing the most ideal version of a study and to instead grapple with the challenges of applying those research methods to more realistic business cases.
Finally, we considered what the increased social unrest due to racial injustice meant for our students, both as they completed coursework and as they prepared to enter the world as early career communicators. At a minimum, we felt that all students needed to consider ethics with an eye toward diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI), and we updated our research ethics accordingly. We also encouraged – but did not require – students to take on DEI questions in their project selection. Pushing or requiring students to choose DEI topics would have risked undermining our first two goals. But for students who chose to pursue these questions, the semester- long assignment provided an opportunity for deeper engagement.
Future instructors could choose to implement one of these interventions without committing to both of them. Project choice in itself can improve student agency, even if it is not explicitly connected to future career goals, social issues or questions of DEI. And of course, giving students the opportunity to work on projects that emulate real-world campaigns helps students build confidence applying research methods in practice, regardless of whether they are invested in the particular topic.
Bringing these three elements together, however, has the added benefit of encouraging students to think about ethics and equity in terms of their own goals and aspirations, hopefully preparing them to take those ideas to a career of their choice. Further, the interventions that allow for all three elements are synergistic rather than in conflict; each has the potential to improve the others’ effects.
Assignment Learning Objectives
Learning Objective 1 (abbreviated as LO 1):
Students increase their capacity to connect coursework to professional success in future careers.
Learning Objective 2 (abbreviated as LO 2):
Students develop research and analytic skills.
Learning Objective 3 (abbreviated as LO 3):
Students develop ethics and diversity/inclusion knowledge.
Learning Objective 4 (abbreviated as LO 4):
Students increase confidence in their ability to employ new skills and knowledge in their future careers.
Connection to Public Relations Practice or Theory
Research and analytic skills, ethics knowledge, and diversity and inclusion knowledge are three of the qualities employers most desire in entry-level public relations professionals, yet many college graduates enter the workforce without a strong understanding of relevant research methods or how they relate to ethics and inclusion (CPRE, 2018). Investigations find that, in particular, communication practitioners do not consistently employ research methods to measure and evaluate the success of their messaging (Thorson et al., 2015). These disconnects, however, are not because public relations curricula lack research methods training; in fact, more than 90 percent of undergraduate programs require a research methods course (CPRE, 2018).
Instead, research suggests that students frequently struggle to actually learn the research skills covered in these courses, in part because they do not understand how the material relates to their existing knowledge or future goals (Markle, 2017; see Early, 2014 for meta- analysis). As a result, it is difficult for students to integrate new concepts into their worldview, and they are less motivated to engage with course materials.
Additionally, when students enter the working world, they may not see these research tools as ways to improve their messaging but as potentially undermining their contributions (Nothhaft & Stennson, 2019). We posit that teaching research methods in a vacuum, disconnected from students’ goals and interests, may exacerbate this problem.
By asking students to choose an organization and topic that feel relevant to them, we improve student learning, connecting research and analytic skills and ethics knowledge developed in the course to their existing knowledge, real-world experience, and future goals (Anderson, 2004; Leston-Bandeira, 2013). Students more clearly recognize how the information they are learning might apply directly to their future careers, and they build confidence in their ability to apply those skills in the workplace.
Employers increasingly feel that DEI training must be embedded in all aspects of business and communication education rather than treated as a separate topic (Ragas, 2023). This GIFT addresses this need by incorporating questions of diversity and inclusion into the study of research ethics and, in many cases, as a core component of the issue students choose to address for their semester topic.
How the Assignment was Class-Tested
The activity consists of reshaping a semester-long, client-based project, providing opportunities for students to rethink the values that usually underlie research courses in strategic communication. It was class tested in two 30-person undergraduate Advertising/Public Relations Research Methods classes.
In the traditional course, over sixteen weeks, lectures on research methods including focus groups, interviews, ethnography, surveys, and experiments were each followed by a graded assignment conducted individually or in a group. Due to COVID-19, we reimagined the class as an asynchronous remote course, as many other instructors had. Our new design aimed to increase online engagement and make the course feel relevant by giving students opportunity to think deeply about real-world issues across two core course elements that encompassed the GIFT:
Choosing a client and issue related to a current social issue,
Learning about research ethics issues that have involved BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, People of Color) communities,
Each group was required to select a client engaged with a relevant social issue that they would like to address throughout the semester. A relevant social issue was defined as an important problem for discussion that is closely connected to the current time and affects human society (Dictionary.com, n.d.a; Dictionary.com, n.d.b; Dictionary.com, n.d.c). The social issue could but did not have to be related to DEI (diversity, equity, and inclusion).
Once clients and issues were approved, each group refined a research problem to address on behalf of their client over the course of the semester. As we covered each method, students posed research questions which could be best answered with that method and which deepened their understanding and built on their previous work. There were three phases of research assignments: Secondary Data (background research project), Qualitative Primary Data (focus group, in-depth interview, participant observation/ethnography), and Quantitative Primary Data (survey, experiment). These assignments led to a reflection assignment that allowed students to speak to the value of the unique aspects of the course (i.e. social issue and diverse research ethics) and a final project (presentation and paper) that synthesized the previous assignments and provided recommendations for their clients’ advertising or PR effort.
Maintaining the advocacy focus, the reframed project was complemented by content highlighting the perspectives of marginalized or minoritized communities. Each week, in addition to working toward graded assignments, students were prepared to engage fully in discussion activities including contributing written or video recorded posts in the internal message forum for the class. We reworked the section of the course examining research ethics to include socially relevant aspects. For example, previous ethics modules centered studies involving white researchers and participants (e.g., the Milgram and Stanford Prison Experiments). We added the “Tuskegee Experiment” to our case studies and included new sections on “Black Women & Medicinal Experimentation” and “Research Ethics and Exploitation in Developing Countries” (see sample assignment titled Research Ethics through Diverse Experiences). We also provided an assignment that allowed students to reflect on the knowledge they gained over the semester including what was most valuable, what outstanding questions they had, and what was most relevant to their personal and professional life. These opportunities allowed students to further consider their professional futures as well as discuss ethical considerations addressed during the semester.
Evidence of Learning Outcomes/Assessment
Evidence of learning outcomes was demonstrated through qualitative student feedback that aligned with key learning objectives. Students said the course felt especially relevant compared to other courses they had taken. They emphasized that focusing on real-world issues (in this case, DEI related) was important to them and made understanding concepts easier (LO 1, LO 3). Students indicated that having a topic that was meaningful to them and relevant to current events made it easier for them to engage with course topics.
Notably, the GIFT served as the bridge between course content taught by us as instructors and the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) that public relations practitioners value (specifically, research skills and ethics knowledge). Students believed that choosing the social issue related topic made their explorations of the various research methods especially engaging (LO 2, LO 4). Furthermore, the topics covered in the ethics section worked to deepen their appreciation for the related discussion activities. Students said that the expanded ethics section was especially engaging and made them think more seriously about the importance of ethics in research.
The perceived relevance of the GIFT provided the glue of engagement and self-efficacy needed to bring about the intended outcomes. Additionally, the ethics section provided food for thought about diversity, equity, and inclusion that could guide subsequent research.
Importantly, the students also said that the GIFT better prepared them for entry-level positions in their field. Students felt that they could use the project as an example on their resume and in job applications. Some also indicated that it made them stronger candidates as they entered the job market, with one noting that the project prepared them for an interview, allowing them to speak about hands-on work employing multiple research methods that they would need to use over the course of a campaign if hired.
The feedback students provided suggests that they found this approach meaningful and exciting, even at a time when they faced more remote classwork that could make staying engaged difficult.
Template Assignment Guides
There are three template assignments:
Client/Issue Choice Opportunity
Research Ethics through Diverse Experiences Activity
Reflection Assignment
Client/Issue Choice Opportunity
Learning Outcomes
Define team goals and expectations for group work
Collaborate toward the selection of an organization/client
Create research topic based on a social issue impacting an organization/client
Assignment Description
This semester you will have the opportunity to focus on a client’s engagement with a major social movement or current event. Each group will be required to select a client engaged with a relevant social issue that you would like to address throughout the semester.
A relevant social issue will be defined as an important problem for discussion that is closely connected to the current time and affects human society (Dictionary.com, n.d.a; Dictionary,com n.d.b, Dictionary.com, n.d.c).
Assignment Requirements
First, you will fill out a survey that will assess your personal project preferences including your skills, interests, and the social issues which you are most passionate about. After being assigned to groups based on your preferences and completing a team charter, your group will decide on and submit your top three clients and potential research topics for my final approval.
Once confirmed, your group will further refine a research problem to address throughout the semester. With each assignment, you will pose research questions that can be addressed using the research methods covered in the course. The research you conduct will involve how your client is responding to a social issue (as defined above).
Each potential client that your group identifies should fall under one of the following categories:
This client should consider addressing [relevant social issue] through strategic communication research,
This client is currently addressing [relevant social issue] and should assess their effectiveness through strategic communication research, or
This client is involved in a corporate crisis/situation related to [relevant social issue] that should be addressed through strategic communication research.
The client can be a for-profit or nonprofit organization. It should be an organization that is big enough to have a media footprint. The social issue can but does not have to be related to DEI (diversity, equity, and inclusion). It can be any social issue (e.g. anti-Black racism, climate change, disability justice, animal rights, bullying etc.). However, it should be a problem that requires strategic communication research to solve.
Research Ethics through Diverse Experiences Activity
Learning Outcomes
Increase understanding of ethical considerations involved in research through diverse perspectives/examples.
Connect ethical considerations to the professional world.
Connect ethical considerations to your research project.
Assignment Description
You will discuss the ways in which learning about these unethical studies inform your understanding of communication research ethics.
Assignment Requirements
Please read and/or watch at least two videos or articles from the subsections below. Afterward, use the discussion questions listed below for this week’s forum post.
Discussion Questions (Post answers in forum discussion)
What is the importance of discussing ethics in research?
Describe some historical instances of unethical research practices. Include any important takeaways.
What are the risks of participating in research?
Now that you have engaged with these case studies and seen the potential for harm related to conducting research, what can you take from this to ensure that you are being ethical in the research you design for your project?
How does the general topic of ethics relate to the client organization your group chose for this semester?
How could the general topic of ethics inform your future professional goals?
Reflection Assignment
Due by [DATE] at [TIME]
This assignment will provide you an opportunity to reflect on the knowledge you have gained this semester – what has been valuable to you, what you have questions about, and what is relevant to your personal and professional life. Please write at least one single-spaced page total (note, bullet point indents and the questions below do not count toward the page count). You can feel free to write more than one-page.
Reflecting on the readings, summary guide, engagement activities, slide notes, instructor videos, and additional content provided and discussed through the semester:
Please discuss knowledge you have gained in each of the following areas:
Understanding of secondary research
Understanding of qualitative analysis
Understanding and quantitative analysis
The uses and benefits of using research to answer advertising and/or PR questions.
Please discuss how examining ethics from a range of diverse perspectives impacted the execution of your research assignments. For example, you can discuss the impact it had on the overall direction of your research (e.g. what your group decided to address). You could also discuss the impact it had on how you approached specific research aspects (e.g. designing research questions, interacting with research participants, etc.).
Please discuss any outstanding questions you have or points of confusion regarding any topic discussed in the course so far. I will provide additional feedback. If you have no outstanding questions, discuss how you have been able to gain clarity and better understand the meaning of the topics or texts discussed so far this semester.
Please discuss the aspects of the course that have been most valuable to you so far this semester, including how any of the topics or materials covered so far relate to your life, the communities to which you belong, and/or your career aspirations.
Assignment Grading Criteria or Rubric
Client/Issue Choice Opportunity
This client preference activity accounts for 2.5% of the student’s total grade (pass/fail). To receive credit for the client/issue choice, students must submit three potential clients (falling under one of the three listed categories) and the corresponding social issue to be researched for each. Alternatively, the assignment can be viewed as a low stakes engagement opportunity used to develop a graded assignment.
Research Ethics through Diverse Experiences Activity
This research ethics forum response activity is one of ten responses that accounts for 5% of the student’s total grade. Students receive full credit for each one as long as they address each part of the prompt and respond to a classmate. Alternatively, the assignment can be viewed as a low stakes engagement opportunity used to develop a graded assignment.
Reflection Assignment
This Reflection Assignment accounts for 10% of the student’s total grade. Grading will be based on the accuracy of the information provided in question one and the substantiveness of the responses to questions two through four.
Teaching Note
Intended Courses
Advertising/Public Relations research methods; Undergraduate communication research methods
Best Practices of Implementing the Assignment
We made a decision to require that each student engage with a social issue, rather than to “strongly suggest” or to allow opting out. We took this stance because we felt strongly that engaging successfully in the professional field (and in society in general) will increasingly require young adults to step outside of the comfortable and agreeable. However, we balanced this decision with a variety of student choice moments that allowed students to maintain agency and equity in the course. For example, groups were assigned based on students’ responses to a survey about project preferences, including issues about which they were most passionate. Student groups were provided autonomy in selecting clients, which could be any for-profit or nonprofit organizations with a significant media footprint. The activity design asked each group to work together to decide on three client/issue ideas with justifications for each. The instructors then selected one of the three ideas for the students to continue to develop.
Notably, the social issue could be but did not have to be related to DEI (diversity, equity, and inclusion). Setting tight parameters around the type of client and issue the students chose could have resulted in students feeling pressure to choose issues perceived as important to the instructors. Instead, we welcomed a range of social issues as long as they could be addressed with strategic communication research. Broad parameters ensured students chose issues engaging for them (e.g., climate change, disability justice, animal rights, bullying etc.). Yet, our approach allowed for students to explore DEI by choice. For example, one student in a group researching diversity in NASCAR shared:
I want to say that I already valued diversity in research, but this course has furthered my appreciation for it. Especially when finding that a great deal of research associated with our client has been focused on the white feminist perspective in branding and social change, rather than further inclusion of factors like race and ethnicity.
Furthermore, the way we framed our approach—as an “opportunity” for students to “choose” to delve into social issues paired with “understanding” the unethical research experiences of people from minoritized communities (as well as completing a team charter detailing an approach for working well together)—seemed to prepare students to be inclusive and ethical themselves. Because of our approach, students– including our underrepresented students–felt not only accommodated but empowered. For example, after discussing her group’s decision to choose a DEI related social issue, the Black student mentioned earlier continued by expressing her gratitude for our approach–while bridging key aspects of the GIFT in her response (i.e. student engagement toward addressing PR, exploring a social issue and practicing ethics and inclusion):
I enjoyed our focus group because we asked sensitive questions that are generally avoided. In our focus groups, [the] majority of our participants strayed away from questions of diversity and race, but it started a conversation. Another factor is that there were no persons of color in our focus group which is an important part of providing solutions. Research participants should come from diverse backgrounds because one opinion and point of view does not speak for all. Thank you for allowing our research topics to be centered around the current racial climate that we live in today.
We opted for open-ended ethics discussion questions that allowed students to engage in deep reflection beyond a regurgitation of course concepts (see Research Ethics through Diverse Experiences Activity).
However, the original discussion questions did not directly ask about relevance specifically to the research project/client and career goals. We also opted for reflection questions that allowed students to engage in contemplation about knowledge they gained over the semester without being primed by the instructor (see Reflection Assignment). The original reflection prompts did not explicitly ask students to address ethics and diverse perspectives. However, students’ responses organically included references to ethics and inclusion. For example, a student mentioned their group contemplating whether or not to ask women at a shelter about their abuse experiences (ultimately, going a different route after further reflection on their research goals). Another student discussed their group grappling with not having the proper survey sample for questions meant to address size-inclusive clothing for a popular women’s athleisure brand (and their decision to acknowledge this limitation in the write up of their data). Going forward, we would consider including a specific prompt to further allow for reflection related to DEI and ethics. Questions in this document were revised to support the aim of balancing reflectiveness and learning objectives (without leading the students to specific conclusions).
Recommended Resources Related to the Assignment
Watch
Crash Course [CrashCourse] (2018, April 18). Henrietta Lacks,the Tuskegee experiment, and ethical data collection: Crash course statistics #12 [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CzNANZnoiRs
Read
Scharff, D. P., Mathews, K. J., Jackson, P., Hoffsuemmer, J., Martin, E., & Edwards, D. (2010). More than Tuskegee: understanding mistrust about research participation. Journal of health care for the poor and underserved, 21(3), 879–897. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.0.0323
Limitations/Challenges of Implementing the Assignment
The COVID-19 pandemic allowed for an innovative spirit that led to the development of this GIFT but also presented certain challenges. Due to COVID-19 restrictions, the exploration of certain methods was curtailed. For example, there were workarounds needed for methods like ethnography or interviewing. Because the information needed to be delivered asynchronously due to COVID-19 parameters, the ethics additions to the course, which were significant, still felt insufficient in depth. This was due to the sensitive nature of the topics and the lack of rich, in person, real-time discussion.
However, in a traditional or asynchronous class, it may be a challenge for instructors teaching our GIFT to create the conducive social/physical environment students need to engage with these topics. Instructors should work to manage emotional responses, nonverbal cues, etc. toward enriched (even vulnerable) depths of conversation. For both the diverse ethics examples as well as the social issues related to each client, robust interpersonal discussion should be encouraged among students where communication aspects like tone of voice, reflection on previous commenters etc. can add to the weight of the discussion. Furthermore, there may be additional limitations for this GIFT in a summer course where there may be less time to select groups, a client and a social issue, all of which require larger portions of class time.
Instructors teaching smaller courses may find that it is more challenging to sort students into groups with similar interests based on their survey responses. In larger course sections, we were easily able to assign groups where students had at least some evident shared interest. When there are less students in total, it can be more challenging to identify clear areas of overlap. It is important to take care in this step to ensure that a student does not feel excluded or unenthusiastic as someone without as much direct interest in the project.
Finally, it is important to make sure that students continue to view the project from the perspective of their client, operating in an ethical manner that serves the best interest of the organization. Because students have selected social issues about which they are passionate, some may at first be inclined to focus on solving the challenge itself, rather than what it means to represent a client engaging with the issue. This is both a limitation – in that it requires additional attention from the instructor – and an opportunity for students to engage critically with what it means to operate ethically as a public relations professional.
References
Anderson, R. C. (2004). Role of the reader’s schema in comprehension, learning, and memory. In R. B. Ruddell & N. J. Unrau (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (5th ed., pp. 594–606). International Reading Association.
Freire, P. (2018). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Bloomsbury.
Ineson, E., Jung, T, Haines, C, & Kim, M. (2012).The influence of prior subject knowledge, prior ability and work experience on self- efficacy. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education, 12(1), 59-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhlste.2012.11.002
Leston-Bandeira, C. (2013). Methods teaching through a discipline research-oriented approach. Politics, 33(3), 207–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9256.12013
Markle, G. (2017). Factors influencing achievement in undergraduate social science research methods courses: A mixed methods analysis. Teaching Sociology, 45(2), 105–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092055X16676302
Murtonen, M., Olkinuora, E., Tynjälä, P. et al. (2008). “Do I need research skills in working life?”: University students’ motivation and difficulties in quantitative methods courses. High Education, 56, 599–612. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-008-9113-9
Nothhaft, H. & Stensson, H. (2019). Explaining the measurement and evaluation stasis: A thought experiment and a note on functional stupidity. Journal of Communication Management, 23(2). https://doi.org/10.1108/JCOM-12-2018-0135
Thorson, K., Michaelson, D., Gee, E., Jiang, J., Lu, Z.,, Luan, G., Weatherly, K., Pung, S., Qin, Y. & Xu, J. (2015). Joining the Movement? Investigating Standardization of Measurement and Evaluation Within Public Relations. Research Journal of the Institute of Public Relations, 2(1), 1-25. https://instituteforpr.org/wp-content/uploads/MichaelsonEtcArticle.pdf
To cite this article: Gray, J., and Thompson, J. (2024). Infusing real-world social issues and ethics into research methods instruction. Journal of Public Relations Education, 9(3), 101-120. https://journalofpreducation.com/?p=4294
Editorial Record: Submitted May 25, 2022. Revised September 17, 2022. Accepted October 28, 2022. Published March 2024.
Author
Bora Yook Assistant Professor College of Arts & Sciences Fairfield University Connecticut, USA Email: byook@fairfield.edu
ABSTRACT
This paper presents two sequential team projects in a crisis communication course: case study and press conference simulation. Initially, students engage in a comprehensive team case study, conducting in-depth background research and critical analysis of real-world organizational crisis communication. Subsequently, students prepare a simulated press conference, addressing hypothetical scenarios for the same organizations analyzed in their case studies. The scenarios integrate various social issues, such as diversity and inclusion, ethics, environment, and human rights. In preparation, students apply media training guidelines to enhance their verbal and nonverbal communication skills as crisis spokespersons. This pedagogical approach fosters the development of essential knowledge, skills, and abilities in students, as outlined in the Commission on Public Relations Education’s (CPRE) 2018 “Fast Forward” report. These competencies include knowledge in crisis management and social issues, writing and public speaking skills, and the cultivation of problem-solving, creative, and critical thinking abilities.
This crisis communication course integrates two sequential team assignments – a case study and a simulated press conference. Effective execution of a crisis press conference simulation requires a comprehensive understanding of the organization and crisis communication, writing and communication skills, and problem-solving ability. Researchers in higher education argue that a scaffolding pedagogical approach, including sequential assignments, facilitates student achievement in key learning outcomes such as writing skill, problem-solving, and engagement (Acosta-Gonzaga & Ramirez-Arellano, 2022; Hunker et al., 2014). This scaffolding approach provides students with the necessary support and guidance to motivate their engagement in active learning (Acosta-Gonzaga & Ramirez-Arellano, 2022).
Case studies are often used in public relations education and practice because the method offers rich data about events, organizations, people, processes, and various circumstances (Stacks, 2016). In the case study component of this course, teams select and analyze recent, real-world organizational crises to evaluate the effectiveness of crisis communication. Each team delivers a comprehensive analysis and presentation, and both are graded by the instructor. Upon completion, students gain in-depth knowledge about the organization and its crisis communication practice. Additionally, students receive feedback on their writing and communication skills and critical thinking abilities from the instructor and peers. Reflecting on feedback from both the instructor and peers (see Appendix A) helps students improve their skills for the subsequent team assignment: the simulation. Thus, the strategic design of the case study and press conference simulation as sequential assignments provides an optimal opportunity for students to develop their knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs).
Public relations educators suggest that classroom simulations are effective pedagogical approaches in crisis communication education (O’Donnell, 2020; Veil, 2010; Wang, 2017). Role-playing activity in a simulated crisis conference enhances students’ competencies in crisis management (Wang, 2017). Crisis simulation and collaboration with journalism students have proven to effectively enhance learning about real-life crisis communication (Veil, 2010). Additionally, simulated media interview exercises have been found to improve students’ competencies in business acumen, media communication skills, and critical thinking (O’Donnell, 2020). Across various disciplines, simulated activities facilitate students’ development of skills and abilities such as critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaboration (Chernikova et al., 2020). These studies recommend implementing a simulation in the crisis classroom as well as in other public relations courses (O’Donnell, 2020; Veil, 2010; Wang, 2017). However, guidelines from a media training perspective are rarely discussed when simulations are implemented in classrooms.
Media training is often considered essential for senior public relations professionals and executives because top executives frequently become spokespersons in crisis communication (Wang & Wang, 2014). Strong verbal and nonverbal communication skills have always been vital for public relations professionals, particularly in today’s social media landscape and its visually driven nature. Public relations professionals have noted the importance of visuals in social media communication (Conner, 2018). Consequently, current assignments draw from research to encourage students to develop their verbal and nonverbal communication skills as spokespersons in crises (e.g., De Waele et al., 2018, 2020).
De Waele et al. (2018, 2020) recommended several visual cues for spokespersons’ media training, particularly in crises. These cues include maintaining a stable, open, and relaxed posture, showing one’s face directly to the audience (e.g., interviewer or camera), and using a simple background to avoid visual distractions. The researchers also highlighted the importance of verbal and vocal cues, noting that a lower voice pitch can enhance the speaker’s credibility. For clearer message delivery, the study suggested using only two or three key messages, having short quotes, and employing information vivid language, such as metaphors or examples. To focus on honesty and empathy, they recommended phrases like “we do, we know, we care” and simplifying key messages (De Waele et al., 2020, p. 6). An organizational crisis is a “perceptual” event (Coombs, 2015) where stakeholders interpret the message from the content itself and the manner of its delivery. Thus, it is essential for aspiring public relations professionals to be ready for managing media interactions and navigating highly “visible” social media communication during crises.
Connection to CPRE’s Fast Forward Report
The Commission on Public Relations Education’s 2018 Fast Forward report stated that specific knowledge, skills, abilities, and traits are needed for entry-level public relations professionals, bridging the educational-industry gap (O’Neil et al., 2018). Sequential assignments in this course are designed to cultivate these competencies for students. First, students acquire in-depth knowledge about crisis management and various social issues. During the simulated press conference, they deal with hypothetical crisis scenarios involving the same real-world organizations they analyzed in their first project. These hypothetical crisis scenarios concern social issues such as diversity and inclusion, ethics, environment, and human rights. For instance, a hypothetical crisis scenario involves a coffee chain company accused of unethical sourcing and worker exploitation in developing countries. The allegation accuses the company’s suppliers of using forced labor under inhumane conditions to produce coffee across multiple developing countries.
Students have multiple opportunities to hone their writing, public speaking, and nonverbal communication skills while completing the assignments including five major deliverables: a case study paper and presentation, a response statement, social media strategy with message examples, and simulated press conference. The case study paper requires extensive secondary research on the organization and its crisis communication strategies. Students apply theoretical frameworks such as Coombs’ Situational Crisis Communication Theory and Benoit’s Image Restoration Theory for critical analysis. They also develop persuasive key messages for crisis response statements and social media. During the simulation, students present these messages and engage in Q&A sessions with “media representatives.” Preparation for the simulation includes practicing media interviews, video recording themselves and reflections, and applying media training guidelines to potential interview questions (see the Press Conference Simulation Assignment Guide). This method of self-recording and reflection is an effective tool for enhancing oral communication skills (Tailab & Marsh, 2019).
Through sequential projects, students enhance their problem- solving, creative, and critical thinking abilities by analyzing past crises to effectively devise future organizational communication strategies. Students also create authentic and realistic social media content for the hypothetical crises and participate in a peer feedback loop, which involves both offering and receiving critiques on their written, verbal, and nonverbal communication skills. The reflective and collaborative approach in the preparation process fosters the development of problem-solving, creative, and critical thinking abilities. Furthermore, students are required to strategically assign roles and responsibilities for conducting Q/A sessions with the classmates acting as media representatives.
Assignment Learning Objectives
Gain knowledge of the principles and theories in organizational crisis communication
Understand various social issues and stakeholders’ expectations
Evaluate the effectiveness of crisis communication execution
Enhance critical and creative thinking, problem solving abilities
Apply theoretical knowledge into practice
Improve proficiency in written, verbal, and nonverbal communication
Connection to Public Relations Practice and/or Theory
Edelman’s 2022 Connected Crisis study revealed important insights that crisis management is increasingly required for communication and corporate leaders. The report highlights a shift in stakeholder expectations, particularly among Gen Z, who demand transparent communication and wield significant influence over crisis communication through social and digital platforms (Edelman, 2022). Given the rising prominence of social issues in corporate operation and communication, it is critical for future PR professionals to understand a broad spectrum of social issues and their relevance to communication practices. In this course, students delve into Coombs’ (2007) Situational Crisis Communication Theory and Benoit’s (1997) Image Restoration Theory. Students apply these theories, along with other principles, in practice by writing critical analyses, formulating response strategies, and suggesting recommendations, thereby deepening their understanding of the connection between research and practice.
How the Assignment was Class-Tested
This course, a required 3000-level offering, is designed for PR majors and minors, mostly upper-class students. A prerequisite introductory PR course is essential, ensuring students possess a foundational understanding of public relations principles. Upon completing the first assignment – a team case study paper and presentation – students are equipped with confidence in comprehending the organization and its crisis communication practices. This foundational knowledge is crucial as they progress to the simulated press conference, which employs hypothetical scenarios for practical application. Ideally, conducting the simulation in a media broadcasting studio or an auditorium-style classroom is recommended, as it provides a more realistic experience to students.
Evidence of Learning Outcomes
Through this course, students acquire a comprehensive understanding about crisis management including its process, various models and strategies, communication planning, engagement with various stakeholders, and critical evaluation of an organization’s crisis communication. The assessment of student progress in writing and public speaking skills is facilitated through both formal and informal methods, utilizing multiple deliverables. A senior colleague observed the class and commented:
[I]t is excellent for students’ portfolios, and it underscores that research and theory guide message design. She is also having students facilitate press conferences in our media studio, giving students applied experience where from an instructional design perspective, it’s clear that assignments for the course build on one another. And, in addition to the professor, students provide feedback to one another.
Template Assignment Guides
Case Study Assignment Guide
Overview
This six-week team project involves a comprehensive case analysis that covers organizational crisis history, background, culture, stakeholders, and critical analysis of crisis responses. Students gain a deep understanding of both the organization and its crisis communication strategies. In addition, students apply theoretical concepts to real-world cases. The final deliverables include a team paper and presentation.
Instruction
Each team submits a comprehensive case study paper and presentation. The paper should encompass a crisis communication study including analyses of the organization, theoretical framework and review of previous literature (professional and scholarly), crisis timeline and responses, and conclusion. The process for completing this assignment is divided into three steps: 1) submit three potential recent cases for the professor’s review, 2) upon receiving approval from the professor, teams start working on the case analysis and periodically sharing their progress for the professor’s feedback, and 3) submit the final paper, presentation, and peer and self-evaluation. The case study includes:
Title page
Executive summary
This one-page summary is tailored for busy professionals, summarizing key findings, evaluation, and/or implications for their future communication practice. Highlight how these insights are beneficial to the organization, the specific situation, and related issues.
Synopsis
Organization Background and Industry Overview
Summarize the organization’s history, mission, vision, and values. Include communication campaigns as well as the industry overview.
Crisis Situation and Timeline
Comprehensive details of the crisis, its impact, and timeline of the crisis.
Address its significance, financial and reputational impacts, stakeholder reactions, and media responses.
Theory, Principles, and Concepts
Introduce and summarize specific theory or concepts applied in the case study. For example, discuss Coombs’ SCCT (2007) or Benoit’s IRT (1997) in the section, how either theory (or other principles) makes sense of the case.
Crisis Communication, Action, and Analysis
Analyze the organization’s crisis actions and response by tactic or media type or chronicle order or stakeholders.
Explain how the organization communicated about the crisis to stakeholders.
Identify the crisis response strategies based on the concepts, theories, models, and critical analysis of organization’s response and its appropriateness.
Conclusion
Discuss implications, contributions, recommendations, and future directions for the organization and societal impacts.
References (excluded in the page limit)
Include a minimum of 10 credible scholarly and professional references relevant to the topic. An appropriate scholarly study should be 1) published in a communication journal or relevant fields, and 2) an original study with primary data collection (not a review of a book). Professional reference refers to mass media (e.g., New York Times, Wall Street Journal) or reliable professional publications (e.g., PR Week, PR News, PRSA’s Strategies and Tactics, Marketing Dive, McKinsey Quarterly, Harvard Business Review).
Presentation
About 15-20 minutes including Q/A session with all team members presenting.
Submit visual aids (PPT, Prezi, video, etc.) on Blackboard. Consider readability and attractiveness of the slide design (e.g., font size, color, relevant visuals/videos, logos, simple layout). Maintain professionalism in verbal and nonverbal communication (e.g., show confidence, appropriate voice tone).
Peer and Self-Evaluation
Using the provided evaluation forms to assess the performance of each team after presentations. Also, submit a self-evaluation form to reflect on your own performance in this project.
Evaluation criteria: Focus on verbal and nonverbal communication skills, the ability to answer questions effectively, and response appropriateness.
Press Conference Simulation Assignment Guide
Overview
Each team hosts a simulated crisis press conference based on a given hypothetical scenario, focusing on the same organization analyzed in the case study. Team members play the role of spokespersons, responsible for representing the organization, delivering the crisis response, and facilitating the Q/A sessions. This four-week project culminates in a set of deliverables: a response statement, social media strategy and message examples, and a simulated press conference presentation.
Instruction
The objective is to enable students to apply theoretical knowledge to practical scenarios and equip students with the skills necessary to perform as effective crisis spokespersons, thereby enhancing their proficiency in crisis communication. The hypothetical crises involve one or multiple social issues in the context of diversity and inclusion, ethics, environment, or human rights.
Five-step process for a successful press conference:
1. Team will receive a unique crisis for its organization.
Each team receives a hypothetical crisis scenario.
Collaborate with team members to determine the details of the crisis, preparing to address all potential media questions during the press conference.
Learn about other teams’ crisis scenarios and prepare a minimum seven questions per scenario, ranging from easy (e.g., fact-checking type) to challenging questions (e.g., organizational deception or mismanagement). You will ask those questions to other teams by playing a role of “media” during the conference.
2. Team will submit a paper containing three components: a response statement, social media strategy, and social media message examples.
Response statement (one-page): Write a statement outlining key facts and updates about the crisis (e.g., current situation, impact of the crisis, organizational actions, and next steps) and related social issue. This is a statement that the spokesperson will communicate with “media” at the beginning of the conference.
Social media strategy
Select one or two social media platforms, justifying their relevance to your stakeholders. Explain your stakeholders and their significance to the organization and the crisis.
Develop a message strategy for the selected social media platforms, providing a rationale for its appropriateness.
Outline a timeline and frequency for your social media posts.
Social media message examples
Write realistic social media messages aligned with your suggested strategy, considering elements like hashtags, account names, visuals, etc.
3. Spokesperson training (all members)
Summarize the key do’s and don’ts for spokesperson training based on course materials (Coombs, Ch. 4 [2015]; De Waele et al. [2018, 2020]).
Record a video of yourself presenting the statement without looking at the notes or statement.
Video recording: Each student should create a 1-2 minute video, using their cellphone, demonstrating a stand-up position.
Review and reflect: Utilize the established do’s and don’ts to review your own and team members’ videos and share constructive feedback. Please reflect on each other’s comments and practice your presentation.
In-class workshop: Share a one-paragraph summary in class, discussing improvement in verbal and nonverbal communication skills gained from the media training process.
4. Press conference day: The simulation will be about 12-15 minutes per team and all team members must speak during the conference.
Presenting role: Host the crisis press conference, utilizing a one-page response statement for key information. No PowerPoint slides or visual aids are permitted.
Non-presenting role: Act as a “journalist,” attending and engaging in all other teams’ conferences by asking questions.
5. Peer and self-evaluation: Using the provided evaluation forms to assess the performance of each team after presentations. Also, submit a self-evaluation form to reflect on your own performance in this project.
Evaluation criteria: Focus on verbal and nonverbal communication skills, the ability to answer questions effectively, and response appropriateness.
Assignment Grading Criteria or Rubric
The Commission on Public Relations Education’s Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities are intended to be measured in both team assignments – case study and press conference simulation as following:
Knowledge in crisis management and social issue
Skills in writing, public speaking, and communication
Abilities in problem-solving, critical, and creative thinking
Crisis Case Study Paper (Total 100 points)
Executive Summary & Synopsis (10)
Concisely summarizes key findings and valuable recommendations. Skillfully narrates the crisis, its significance, and consequences. Professionally organized.
Organization Background and Industry Overview (10)
Extensive background research on the organization, including mission, vision, values, etc. Summarizes key facts from an industry overview and the industry’s characteristics.
Crisis Situation and Timeline (20)
Detailed description of the crisis and its impact. Explains the significance of the crisis and related social issues. Describes media and stakeholder reactions. Utilizes credible sources (news, published reports) and presents a clear timeline.
Theory and Principles (10)
Concise and accurate description of the relevant theory or principles. Justifies their application.
Crisis Communication, Action, and Analysis (25)
Comprehensively addresses the crisis responses and actions.
Justifies the analysis based on application of chosen theory or principles. Provides a critical analysis of crisis management. Demonstrates deep understanding of the crisis and its magnitude.
Conclusion (15)
Synthesizes case highlights. Discusses limitations, implications for future practice, and societal impact. Provides insightful recommendations.
Reference and Style (10)
Adheres to APA citation style. Included a minimum of 10 credible sources.
Crisis Case Study Presentation (Total 100 points)
Case Study Presentation Materials (50)
Includes all required elements. Engages audience with appropriate visuals. All texts are clear and easily readable.
Case Study Presentation (50)
Demonstrates confidence and good understanding of the case and crisis management. Efficient time management. Presenters are well-prepared, using appropriate voice tone, body language (e.g., eye-contact), and maintaining professionalism.
Press Conference Simulation Paper (Total 100 points)
Response Statement (50)
Addresses crisis responses and actions. Clearly informs the updates on the crisis and outlines next steps. Demonstrates in-depth understanding of the crisis and its societal impact.
Social Media Strategy and Message Examples (50)
Strategic approach to the chosen social media platform(s), considering the stakeholder and the crisis. Clearly states the strategy and message timeline. Ensures message examples are aligned with the proposed strategy. Messages are realistic and professional.
Demonstrates confidence and good understanding of the case and crisis management. Efficiently manages time and addresses all inquiries during the Q&A sessions. Presenters are well-prepared, using appropriate voice tone, body language (e.g., eye-contact), and maintaining professionalism.
Teaching Note
These sequential projects are best suited for crisis communication or media relations courses, ideally with class sizes ranging from 15 to 25 students who have previously completed an introductory public relations course. Implementing these assignments may be challenging in classes where students lack foundational knowledge in public relations. Instructors should encourage and support students to proactively initiate the projects, as active participation is vital for the success of these projects. Providing weekly informal feedback to each team can enhance student engagement. However, managing this format in larger classes could present logistical challenges. After students receive their grades on the case study assignment, conducting a class-wide discussion is recommended. This discussion should aim to identify strategies for strengthening writing, public speaking, and communication skills for the subsequent project, the simulation. For the simulation, it is imperative that students should familiarize themselves with the other teams’ cases in addition to preparing their own crisis case. Facilitating multiple group discussions can be an effective way for encouraging peer-to-peer learning and idea exchange. Conducting the press conference simulation in a special setting, such as a media broadcasting studio or an auditorium-style classroom would be advantageous as such environments more closely replicate the dynamics of a real press conference, providing students with a more authentic learning experience. Instructors are encouraged to review award-winning case studies from reputable sources like the Arthur W. Page Society’s student case study competition, the Public Relations Society of America’s (PRSA) Silver Anvil, and Public Relations Student Society of America’s (PRSSA) Bateman case study competition. For additional research and insights, valuable open-access resources worth exploring include the Institute for Public Relations’ (IPR) research library and the International Public Relations Research Conference’s (IPRRC) proceedings.
References
Acosta-Gonzaga, & Ramirez-Arellano, A. (2022). Scaffolding matters? Investigating its role in motivation, engagement and learning achievements in higher education. Sustainability, 14(20), 13419. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013419
Chernikova, O., Heitzmann, N., Stadler, M., Holzberger, D., Seidel, T., & Fischer, F. (2020). Simulation-based learning in higher education: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 90(4), 499–541. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654320933544
Coombs, W. T. (2007). Protecting organization reputations during a crisis: The development and application of situational crisis communication theory. Corporate Reputation Review, 10(3), 163-176. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.crr.1550049
Coombs, W. T. (2015). Ongoing crisis communication: Planning,managing, and responding (4th Ed.). Sage publications. De Waele, A., Claeys, A.S., Cauberghe, V., & Fannes, G. (2018).
Spokespersons’ nonverbal behavior in times of crisis: The relative importance of visual and vocal cues. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 42(4), 441-460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10919-018-0284-5
De Waele, A., Claeys, A. S., & Opgenhaffen, M. (2020). Preparing to face the media in times of crisis: Training spokespersons’ verbal and nonverbal cues. Public Relations Review, 46(2), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2019.101871
Hunker, D. F., Gazza, E. A., & Shellenbarger, T. (2014). Evidence-based knowledge, skills, and attitudes for scholarly writing development across all levels of nursing education. Journal of Professional Nursing, 30(4), 341-346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2013.11.003
O’Neil, J., Moreno, A., Rawlins, B., & Valentini, C. (2018). Learning objectives: What do students need to know and be able to do for entry-level positions? Fast forward: Foundations +future state. Educators + practitioners (pp. 45-57). https://www.commissionpred.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/report6-full.pdf
Stacks, D. W. (2016). Primer of public relations research. Guilford Publications.
Tailab, M., & Marsh, N. (2019). Use of self-assessment of video recording to raise students’ awareness of development of their oral presentation skills. Higher Education Studies, 10(1),16. https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v10n1p16
Wang, X., & Wang, Z. (2014). The effect of product-harm crisis situations on firms’ spokesperson strategies: Evidence from China’s emerging market economy. Public Relations Review, 40(1), 110–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2013.11.001
Appendix A
Student Peer and Self Review Criteria Example
Overall Evaluation (1-5 Likert Scale):
How effectively was the press conference organized?
To what extent did the conference inform attendees about the organization’s actions?
How well-prepared were the spokespersons for the conference?
How effectively did the team collaborate?
How professionally were all questions answered by the spokespersons?
Qualitative Comments:
What were the highlights of the conference?
What constructive feedback can be offered to the team?
Verbal Communication (1-5 Likert Scale) (De Waele et al., 2020):
How effectively were two or three key messages presented?
Were there relevant short quotes to emphasize the key messages?
How vividly did they (or you) deliver information through metaphors or examples?
How well did they (or you) explain the key message in a simple way?
Nonverbal Communication (1-5 Likert Scale) (De Waele et al., 2020):
How well did they (or you) maintain a stable, open, and relaxed posture?
Was the face clearly visible to the audience (e.g., interviewer or camera)?
To cite this article: Yook, B. (2024). A sequential approach in crisis communication: Integrating case study, press conference simulation, and media training guidelines. Journal of Public Relations Education, 9(3), 121-140. https://journalofpreducation.com/?p=4312
Cookie Consent
We use cookies to improve your experience on our site. By using our site, you consent to cookies.
