Adrienne A. Wallace Grand Valley State University Editor-in-Chief Journal of Public Relations Education Email: wallacad@gvsu.edu
Issue 12-2 showcases how public relations education continues to evolve to meet the demands of an increasingly complex profession, while keeping students’ learning and futures at the center of our work.
Centering Work-Ready Learning Across the issue, authors grapple with a fundamental question: what does it now mean to be “work-ready” in public relations, and how should our programs respond. Articles in this volume deepen the conversation sparked by the Commission on Public Relations Education’s most recent report, particularly around creativity, critical and analytical thinking, emotional and social intelligence, and the soft skills that employers consistently say they need, but do not always see in new graduates. Together, these pieces argue that work readiness is no longer just a matter of mastering writing and campaigns; it is about integrating knowledge, application, and social intelligence into a coherent professional identity.
Classroom Innovation and Pedagogy Several contributions offer concrete, classroom-tested approaches that make this integration visible to students and measurable for faculty. From low‑stakes in‑class creativity exercises that explicitly tie measurable objectives to strategic thinking, to carefully scaffolded crisis and ethics assignments that walk students from memo writing to live Q&A, these authors show how active learning and reflective practice can build confidence, collaboration, and higher-order thinking in accessible ways. These teaching-focused pieces will be especially useful to instructors seeking ready-to-implement assignments that align with CPRE recommendations and accreditation expectations while still leaving room for local adaptation and student voice.
Experiential Learning and Student-Run Agencies This issue also underscores the enduring and expanding value of student‑run agencies as high‑impact, interdisciplinary learning environments. The case study featured here offers a rich, multi‑stakeholder view of a credit‑bearing agency experience, tracing its evolution from a volunteer model to a competitive, prestigious course that blends PR, design, media, and other communication disciplines. Through student, client, and instructor perspectives, the authors illustrate how agency culture, accountability structures, and intentional debriefing accelerate students’ professional growth, leadership, and sense of identity as practitioners. Their findings reinforce what many of us see in our own programs: when we treat student agencies as professional spaces—not just courses—students rise to the challenge.
Ethics, Privacy, and Emerging Demands Finally, this issue highlights the growing expectation that public relations graduates can navigate complex ethical terrain, including data privacy, cybersecurity, and corporate misconduct. The teaching brief on the Wells Fargo scandal exemplifies how privacy, ethics, and crisis communication can be intertwined in a single assignment that feels both immediate and deeply consequential to students preparing for corporate careers. By inviting students to inhabit the tensions between shareholder expectations, stakeholder trust, regulatory scrutiny, and organizational culture, this work demonstrates how PR classrooms can function as labs for ethical leadership in a digital, datafied world.
As editor-in-chief, I am grateful to the editorial staff, editorial review board, authors, individual article reviewers, and practitioners who contributed to this issue, and to the students past, present, and future whose experiences animate every page. I invite you to read these pieces not only as individual studies or teaching notes, but as parts of an ongoing, shared project to design a public relations education that is rigorous, relevant, inclusive, and truly worthy of the students we serve.
The 2023 report of the Commission on Public Relations Education (CPRE) identified key areas of focus for PR educators to enhance students’ learning and preparation for successful public relations careers. Their research found both educators and PR practitioners desired strong problem solving, creative thinking, analytic thinking and strategic planning abilities, but scores were lower when asked if students delivered those in the workplace. This in-class exercise, administered in two upper-level courses, included a pre-test to assess students’ confidence in creativity and collaboration, small-group work to develop measurable objectives and creative activations for a select “Audience” and “Action” (see worksheet in Appendix C). The session ended with a post-test to reassess the same factors listed above, as well as a whole-class discussion about creativity and critical strategic thinking in public relations (see Appendix A for a step-by-step guide and discussion prompts). This exercise reinforced the CPRE recommendations noted above, as well as their call to “Encourage curiosity” and “…Teach students to align…with measurable organizational outcomes and public relations objectives rather than low-level outputs.”
Strategic Planning for Public Relations has been a staple in the campaigns textbook carousel through six editions over more than 20 years. This seventh edition has grown substantially from the 344-page premier edition to an extensive 565 pages.
Manuscript Due Date: 08/07/2025 Anticipated Publication: January 2026 JPRE 12(1)
Guest Editors
Emily S. Kinsky, West Texas A&M University Charles Lubbers, University of South Dakota Adrienne A. Wallace, Grand Valley State University Pamela G. Bourland-Davis, Georgia Southern University (posthumously)
Since 1975, the Commission on Public Relations Education (CPRE) has studied undergraduate and graduate public relations education standards and practices, with the bulk of its effort being to lessen the gap between the profession and the academy at the undergraduate level. In 1999, the CPRE “Port of Entry” report addressed the university as the official “port of entry” for those who seek to make public relations a career, citing both undergraduate and graduate education as the tooling and retooling centers of the public relations profession. Then, the last official CPRE report on graduate education was released in 2012, “Standards for a Master’s Degree in Public Relations: Educating for Complexity.” With the growth of master’s-level public relations education in recent years and the splintering of methods, modes of delivery, theory, and practice, this special issue attempts to bridge the gap that exists in pedagogy related to PR graduate education with an issue solely dedicated to graduate education in public relations.
The purpose of this special issue call is to invite research articles, teaching briefs, scholarly and critical essays, and case studies, and we are especially interested in articles that explore BOTH the challenges and opportunities for public relations pedagogy focusing on graduate-level education in the public relations classroom. Submissions that offer practical knowledge and guidance for ONLY graduate public relations education are encouraged. We invite original submissions, and areas of focus could include but are not limited to:
How practitioner expectations align with graduate education
Best practices for internships in applied master’s programs
Applied theory at the graduate level
International approaches to graduate education
Developing research and data analytical abilities for practice
How graduate programs connect with the demands of the profession
Innovative approaches to graduate education (e.g., unique course offerings, new ideas for projects and assignments)
Submission Guidelines Submissions should follow the Author Guidelines on the JPRE website. Authors should include the special call name (SIGradPR) in parentheses after their manuscript title to indicate the submission is for this particular special call. Authors should submit their manuscript through Scholastica, the online submission system for JPRE. All submissions will be anonymously reviewed, following the guidelines of JPRE. Authors must use APA style for citations, references, tables, figures, and captions, plus follow the JPRE Styleguide. All identifying information must be deleted before full paper submissions.
Timeline with Key Dates Deadline for full manuscript submission to JPRE’s Scholastica submission portal: https://jpre.scholasticahq.com/ – 08/07/2025 Notification of review results, including invitations for revision and resubmission (R&R): August 2025 Deadline for R&R submission: 09/30/2025 Scheduled Publication: January 2026 12(1)
If you have any questions, please contact the guest editors for additional information. Dr. Emily S. Kinsky, West Texas A&M University, ekinsky@wtamu.edu Dr. Chuck Lubbers, University of South Dakota, chuck.lubbers@usd.edu Dr. Adrienne A. Wallace, Grand Valley State University, wallacad@gvsu.edu
Editorial Record: Submitted May 15, 2023. Revised November 29, 2023. Accepted December 18, 2023 by past Editor-in Chief Pamela Bourland-Davis.
Amanda J. Weed Associate Professor Kennesaw State University Georgia, USA Email: aweed2@kennesaw.edu
Adrienne A. Wallace Associate Professor Grand Valley State University Michigan, USA Email: wallacad@gvsu.edu
Betsy Emmons Associate Professor University of Nebraska-Lincoln Nebraska, USA Email: eemmons3@unl.edu
Alisa Agozzino Associate Professor Ohio Northern University Ohio, USA Email: a-agozzino@onu.edu
ABSTRACT
This mixed-method study provides the first known scholarly research specifically about the PRSSA Bateman Case Study Competition. Through triangulation of data from a survey, focus groups, and public data analysis, the authors explored the benefits and challenges of Bateman as an experiential learning program in public relations education. While promoted by the PRSSA organization as “the premier national case study competition for public relations students” (PRSSA, n.d.), research insights indicate that Bateman falls short in meeting students’ educational needs, which is reflected in a 41.7% decrease in competition entries since 2018. Study findings provide support for several research-based recommendations to improve competition practices related to the competition timeline, experiential learning outcomes, organizational communication, judging practices, and support for diversity, equity, and inclusion of Bateman student teams.
Editorial Record: Submitted May 19, 2023. Revised December 12, 2023. Accepted December 14, 2023.
Authors
Amanda J. Weed Associate Professor School of Communication & Media Kennesaw State University Georgia, USA Email: aweed2@kennesaw.edu
Lauren Nye School of Communication & Media Kennesaw State University Georgia, USA
ABSTRACT
Pre-professional student organizations are known to complement undergraduate university studies and propel students into their professional careers. The mission of the Public Relations Student Society of America (PRSSA) is to support students by enhancing education, broadening networks, and launching careers of students in the public relations industry. While PRSSA membership peaked at more than 10,000 members in 2018, membership has declined 41.6%, or more than 4,000 members, to a little more than 6,000 members in 2022. PRSSA student leaders can serve as the “canary in the coal mine” to pinpoint critical challenges in chapter recruitment, engagement, and day-to-day management. This study, through the theoretical lens of Self Determination Theory, aims to measure how PRSSA student leadership satisfies needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness; and explores intrinsic and extrinsic motivations to serve as chapter leaders. From the study findings, the authors propose a PRSSA leadership strategy that integrates extrinsic motivation in the form of a class credit model that better aligns the PRSSA mission to the evolving needs of students.
Adrienne A. Wallace Associate Professor Grand Valley State University Editor-in-Chief Journal of Public Relations Education Email: wallacad@gvsu.edu
The 10-2 issue is all about the student experience. Following the Commission of Public Relations Education (CPRE) issue in 10-1, wherein we examined expectations of a complicated and growing field, we look at not just how students will succeed in the industry but rather their experience and perspective in getting to the finish line of the undergrad experience, using the classroom as a laboratory.
This issue addresses courageous methods with Madden & Guastaferro lending brave insight into the emotional toll that students endure when working with sensitive topics. In fact, their findings show us that students found this topic motivating and meaningful in providing support to victims. I’m grateful for Madden & Guastaferro bringing these issues and advice to light so as to help other PR professors understand how to more effectively integrate trauma-informed practices into campaign courses. We can’t avoid commonly stigmatized issues for the sake of our own comfort in classrooms, we must remain vigilant and maybe even, comfortably uncomfortable in order to improve outcomes related to all matters of communication with all people. I hope you find this article as moving and helpful as I did.
Then, Weed & Nye reveal an additional aspect of student satisfaction using extracurricular activities through PRSSA as a model for maximizing leadership potential and their knowledge, skills, abilities, and traits (KSATs) – building upon the last two CPRE reports. They recommend to maximize these KSATs that PRSSA should be structured within a for-credit curricular design to enhance career preparedness in the student experience. This left me thinking about the potential that exists for high-impact practices and experiential learning crossovers in my own curriculum and asking the question, am I advocating enough for my own PRSSA chapter?
This takes us to the role of technology in this experience discussion, which Lim and Place address in the use of technological tools and responsible use in public relations with our final article and GIFT. In these final pieces, Lim reveals, that college students anticipate professors to incorporate ChatGPT into many course materials rather than prohibiting its use. This study highlights that ChatGPT is a powerful PR tool that can be used by colleges to improve their public relations efforts in a number of ways, from classroom to campus-wide innovation. I appreciated this article and timing as my own university and unit wrestle with policymaking and educational practices surrounding emerging tech in the classroom and campus.
As luck would have it, Place provides us with a solution to the implementation of this looming issue in our classrooms in her award-winning GIFT from the PRSA Educators Academy Summit in 2022. This assignment has miraculously stood the test of tech time and is structured to empower, enable, and embolden students to apply ethical and legal theory in PR to practice by way of a policy writing assignment. Really turning the student into an expert to engage as counsel and “ethical guardians” in the field; furthering a confident student through this classroom experience. Our educators in this issue have effectively transformed wicked problems into practical and professional solutions. I’m so proud of the work we do at JPRE, and I hope our scholars inspire your own practice.
The Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) is devoted to the presentation of research and commentary that advance the field of public relations education. JPRE invites submissions in the following three categories:
Research Articles
Teaching Briefs
Book/Software Reviews
Learn more by visiting the About JPRE page and the Authors/Contributors page for submission guidelines. All submissions should follow the guidelines of the most recent edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA).
Adrienne A. Wallace Associate Professor Grand Valley State University Editor in Chief, Journal of Public Relations Education Email: wallacad@gvsu.edu
Elizabeth L. Toth Professor Emerita University of Maryland Co-Editor, CPRE 2023 Report Email: eltoth@umd.edu
Pamela Bourland-Davis Professor Georgia Southern University Co-Editor, CPRE 2023 Report Email: pamelagb@georgiasouthern.edu
As the incoming editor of the Journal of Public Relations Education, I’ve been absolutely blown away and, frankly, dazzled by the dedication and talents of an all-volunteer team. Where else in the academy does one find an open-access journal run 100% on the time, talent, and treasure of volunteers? Are we crazy? Passionate? Both? Maybe. Anyway, I’m here for it and so are you! If you are so inclined to drop a note of thanks to our esteemed volunteers, you can find a listing of the full executive editorial board and editorial review board at this link.
JPRE welcomes the following members to the executive editorial board of directors:
Senior Associate Editor – Christopher McCollough, Ph.D., Jacksonville State University Associate Editor – Style – Luke Capizzo, Ph.D., APR, University of Missouri Associate Editor – Style – LaShonda L. Eaddy, Ph.D., APR, Penn State University Associate Editor – Layout Design & Web – Amanda J. Weed, Ph.D., APR, Kennesaw State University Assistant Editor – Layout Design – Haley Higgs, Ph.D., Georgia Southern University Associate Editor – Book/Resource Reviews – Jiun-Yi (Jenny) Tsai, Ph.D., Northern Arizona University Assistant Editor – Digital Media – Kate Stewart., Jacksonville State University
It’s my pleasure to thank Dr. Pamela Bourland-Davis for her endless support and enthusiasm for the growth and forward progress of this journal. As just the fourth editor in the journal’s history, it’s not lost on me that JPRE would not be the success it is without the legacy support of the past editors Pamela Bourland-Davis, Emily Kinsky, and Chuck Lubbers and critical support from Tiffany Gallicano. These esteemed scholars form the past editors’ council of JPRE – the foundation and backbone of the journal.
With each new editor, great strides have been made throughout JPRE’s history. As such, I’m pleased to announce the first marks that the incoming executive editorial board has made on the journal, starting with this issue:
We have updated each publication entry to simplify the process and improve website navigation, page loading time, and search. This will allow us to capitalize on precious volunteer hours as well as end keyword cannibalization and “keyword stuffing” of articles published as both a “blog style” post and a PDF on the same site. The appearance might change over time as we find out what is working and what is not working for the journal for search.
Sponsorship from the Moody College of Communication at the University of Texas at Austin will create the Moody College of Communication Quality Reviewer Award with a cash prize to be awarded in August.
Sponsorship from The Arthur W. Page Center establishes the Page Center Ethics in PR Pedagogy Award with a cash prize – to be awarded in August.
Due to generous sponsorships from Moody College and the Page Center, JPRE will pursue CrossRef/DOI supplier registration and SCOPUS database participation to expand the journal’s footprint and impact.
As you can see, this good work cannot be maintained without donor aid. If you are interested in supporting JPRE financially, please message me (jpre@gvsu.edu) for a specialized sponsorship package.
Finally, those of you who attended the November event celebrating 50 years of the Commission on Public Relations Education (CPRE) understand the blood, sweat, and tears that went into the 2023 CPRE report, Navigating Change. It’s my pleasure to present the guest editor commentary for special issue 10-1 below. This issue is a dynamic partner in implementing the report findings into our classrooms. Thank you to Pamela Bourland-Davis and Elizabeth Toth for their insight and lift in bringing this special issue to publication so swiftly.
Adrienne A. Wallace Editor in Chief Journal of Public Relations Education
The 2023 Commission on Public Relations Education report, Navigating Change: Recommendations for Advancing Undergraduate Public Relations Education, was published in conjunction with the 50th anniversary of the Commission. An 18-month process, the report emerged from crowdsourcing what practitioners and educators felt were the most critical topics for public relations, especially as we emerged from a global pandemic, and a myriad of other social and political issues. The result was a report focused on key elements related to the status of education, repeating key items from previous CPRE studies; the future of the workplace; critical strategic thinking; data insights and strategy; ethics; DEI; and, PR as a driver of social change.
Each of these topics was addressed via questions on an omnibus-style quantitative survey, “Page Conversations,” and through secondary research. The key findings are detailed in the report, along with recommendations – largely focused on educators. This issue of the Journal of Public Relations Education provides a deeper dive into some of the data, which was largely descriptive in the report. It also provides teaching suggestions to integrate the findings in the classroom.
Specifically, in this issue you’ll find additional information on the KSAs and hiring preferences as seen by practitioners versus educators, along with the differences between U.S. and international curriculum based on the respondents. Future of the workplace team members considered whether current job ads reflect the interests of Gen Z, the primary future employee workforce. Additional data insight and application in the classroom are offered through reports on critical strategic thinking and ethics. And finally, a classroom assignment based on one of the DEI recommendations is offered.
Because of the richness of the data, and the reported importance of these topics, we anticipate you’ll see additional publications and presentations emerging from the CPRE report in the future. The 2023 Report, Navigating Change, gives the most current thinking by experts. It also has a wealth of additional resources to learn how the seven-chapter topics are refining public relations knowledge. Here’s the link to the full report, the executive summary, and a student guide: https://www.commissionpred.org/navigating-change-report/
We walked away from this project concluding that undergraduate public relations education has made significant progress in establishing the educational foundations. At the same time, it would appear that we are seeing higher-than-ever expectations of our graduates from the public relations industry. The choice of topics included in the report implies that what is needed from future employees will be to think wholistically about how to create effective relationships for their employers within rapidly changing social and global expectations.
Elizabeth L. Toth, Ph.D., APR, Fellow PRSA Professor Emerita, CPRE 2023 Report Co-Editor
Pamela Bourland-Davis, Ph.D. Professor, CPRE 2023 Report Co-Editor
Table of Contents
Editor’s Note Adrienne A. Wallace, Elizabeth L. Toth, and Pamela Bourland-Davis
The Journal of Public Relations Education (JPRE) is devoted to the presentation of research and commentary that advance the field of public relations education. JPRE invites submissions in the following three categories:
Research Articles
Teaching Briefs
Book/Software Reviews
Learn more by visiting the About JPRE page and the Authors/Contributors page for submission guidelines. All submissions should follow the guidelines of the most recent edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA).
Editorial Record: Submitted February 12, 2024. Revised March 5, 2024. Accepted April 11, 2024. Published June 2024.
Author
Charles A. Lubbers Professor University of South Dakota South Dakota, USA Email: chuck.lubbers@usd.edu
Debbie Davis Associate Professor of Practice Texas Tech University Texas, USA Email: debbie.davis@ttu.edu
Amiso George Professor Texas Christian University Texas, USA Email: a.george2@tcu.edu
Morgan Still Master’s Student Texas Tech University Texas, USA
Victoria Bacon Master’s Student Texas Tech University Texas, USA
ABSTRACT
The recent Commission on Public Relations (2023) report contains a chapter recommendation calling on PR educators to help students understand their priorities and values that might impact job searches and career plans. However, knowledge of their priorities and values is only helpful if the job information discusses them. Numerous studies have investigated employer expectations of PR job applicant’s skills based on analysis of the advertisement content. Few, if any, have examined the subject from the job candidate’s perspective, in this case, Generation (Gen) Z, those born from the mid-1990s to 2010. Employers need to understand the characteristics of Gen Z that differentiate them from previous generations if they are to effectively recruit and retain them in an increasingly competitive job market. This study examines the content of 102 employment advertisements being used by organizations to fill entry-level public relations positions to ascertain if they effectively communicate organizational values, priorities, and culture that would attract Gen Z candidates, such as the organization’s commitment to society and to the employees. Content analysis found that out of ten expectations and priorities important to Gen Z, only a mean of 2.7 were included in each ad. The four most common expectations and priorities included were doing meaningful/impactful work, commitment to diversity, inclusion, equity and belonging, providing modern technology, and workplace flexibility. Surprisingly, only seven ads mentioned the organization’s commitment to the environment.
Keywords: Generation Z, PR job advertisement, work-life balance, CPRE-Commission on Public Relations Education, DEIB, workplace expectations
To cite this article: Lubbers, C.A., Davis, D., George, A., Still, M., & Bacon, V. (2024). Are we speaking their language: The presence of content important to Gen Z in entry-level PR job advertisements. Journal of Public Relations Education, 10(1), 47-78. https://journalofpreducation.com/?p=4632
Editorial Record: Special issue deadline June 15, 2020. Revision submitted October 7, 2020. First published online December 22, 2020.
Authors
Teri Del Rosso, Ph.D. Assistant Professor, Journalism and Strategic Media University of Memphis Memphis, TN Email: t.l.d@memphis.edu
Matthew J. Haught, Ph.D. Assistant Chair, Associate Professor Journalism and Strategic Media University of Memphis Memphis,TN Email: mjhaught@memphis.edu
Kimberly S. Marks Malone, APR, Fellow PRSA Instructor, Online Coordinator Journalism and Strategic Media University of Memphis Memphis,TN Email: ksmarks@memphis.edu
Abstract
The Commission for Public Relations Education issued a report in 2018 recommending that public relations ethics be a required course, in addition to the incorporation of ethics into all public relations courses. To understand the implications of this recommendation, this study explores the nature of public relations ethics education in 15 PR programs accredited by Accrediting Council for Education in Journalism and Mass Communications and certified by Public Relations Society of America via the Certification in Education for Public Relations program. Through an analysis of 2020 academic catalogs, findings suggest that although programs have general ethics courses (e.g., media ethics or law and ethics), few programs offer—and fewer require—public relations ethics courses. The research concludes that in conjunction with previous research on ethics in the classroom, programs implement an experiential learning approach to ethics instruction.
More and more, public relations professionals are finding that ethics in PR go beyond communication. Stakeholders and publics want companies to not only post on social media, but also to allocate resources, diversify leadership, and donate to social justice causes (Meyers, 2020; Mull, 2020). As PR professionals navigate these issues for their organizations, the need for ethics training is evident. A Commission on Public Relations Education (CPRE) report found that employers rate knowledge regarding ethical issues as one of the top three skills they seek in hiring employees (CPRE, 2018). The report recommended that a course focusing specifically on public relations ethics be required for undergraduate PR students (Bortree et al., 2018). In 2019, the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) prescribed a PR Ethics course for all programs seeking certification in its Certification in Education for Public Relations (CEPR) program. This coalescence of factors means that public relations programs need to revisit the ethical training they provide and explore a new path forward. This need was laid out in the CPRE report where it was recommended that all PR courses incorporate ethics into the curriculum and lessons center on “moral philosophy, case studies, and simulations” (Bortree et al., 2018, p. 68).
Ethics training is not new to journalism and mass communication programs, where public relations programs are often housed. The Accrediting Council for Education in Journalism and Mass Communications (ACEJMC) positions ethics training as one of its professional values and competencies that programs must teach students, writing that students must “demonstrate an understanding of professional ethical principles and work ethically in pursuit of truth, accuracy, fairness and diversity” (ACEJMC, n.d.-b, para. 18). However, training in most programs tends to be broad and built on the ethics of journalism. As public relations operates differently than journalism, more specific ethics training for public relations is needed.
The purpose of this study is to explore how public relations programs both accredited by ACEJMC and certified by PRSA through the CEPR program address ethics in their curricula. Given the renewed emphasis on ethics education (CPRE, 2018), this research seeks to understand the state of ethics teaching in this specific subset of programs. As ACEJMC and CEPR represent some of the highest expectations and standards for teaching in journalism, mass communication, and public relations, schools that subject themselves to both reviews should reasonably be expected to have higher standards for ethical education.
Literature Review
Public Relations Ethics: Industry Perspectives
Most definitions and conceptualizations of ethics involve “systematic analysis, distinguishing right from wrong, and determining what should be valued” (Bowen, 2007, para. 2). In public relations, that manifests into a practice of valuing “honesty, openness, fair-mindedness, respect, integrity, and forthright communication” (Bowen, 2007, para. 2). Historically, PR was viewed as void of ethics and as a profession that put too much energy into spinning and sensationalizing stories and not focusing on truth and relationship building (Bowen, 2007).
As the profession further embraces its role in the corporate suite, many PR professionals are serving as ethical compasses for their organization’s leadership (Bowen, 2007). The PRSA Code of Ethics guides members and the profession as a whole on the ethical responsibilities of public relations professionals. The core professional values of advocacy, honesty, expertise, independence, loyalty, and fairness help PR professionals serve the public good and achieve “excellence with powerful standards of performance, professionalism, and ethical conduct” (PRSA, n.d., para. 3).
Globally, the International Public Relations Association (IPRA) adopted the Code of Athens in 1965, which was amended in 1968 and again in 2009 (IPRA, 2009). The code’s ethical recommendations to public relations professionals around the world encourage PR practitioners to work in three ethical realms: endeavoring, undertaking, and refraining. These codes center the need to establish and circulate the free flow of information, uphold human dignity, center the truth, avoid manipulation, and balance the concerns of publics and organizations (IPRA, 2009). Similarly, the Global Alliance for Public Relations and Communication Management (GA) offers a code of ethics that includes a declaration of principles and resources for ethics education and enforcement. GA argues in favor of working in the public interest; obeying laws and respecting diversity of local customs; freedom of speech; freedom of assembly; freedom of media; honesty, truth, and fact-based communication; integrity; transparency and disclosure; and privacy (GA, 2018).
Public Relations Ethics: Classroom Perspectives
Before public relations professionals enter the industry, their understanding of ethics often comes from their experiences within higher education. At the 2019 PRSA International Conference in San Diego, Elizabeth Toth moderated a conversation with public relations educators at the Educators Academy about how programs can begin to implement the CPRE’s recommendations for ethics education. This presentation explored research around ethics, common ethical issues, core ethical competencies, implementation models, trends in ethics syllabi, creating a PR-specific ethics course, and increasing ethical lessons across the curriculum (Toth et al., 2019).
Accreditation
Administrators and professors often struggle with finding the right balance between skills-based courses, theory and conceptual classes, course requirements, electives, minors, and supplementary classes outside of the major or department (Blom et al., 2012). If a unit opts to seek accreditation for its program, that decision often brings more considerations and requirements with how schools present the course catalog and descriptions to its students. Although the process of accrediting a program can limit and direct how a school builds its programs (e.g., the amount of credits a student can take within the major, see Blom et al., 2012), as of June 2020, 118 programs have earned accreditation by ACEJMC (ACEJMC, n.d.-a). Seamon (2010) argued that the limits imposed by accreditation make a broader curriculum more difficult, and highlighted a study noting that international public relations courses were stymied by accreditation limits (Hatzios & Lariscy, 2008). However, it should be noted that ACEJMC requirements have changed significantly since Seamon’s work to be more open to curricular change, thus, an examination of how ethics training has been implemented in light of those changes is appropriate. Becoming an accredited program provides administrators and professors the opportunity to reflect on the program’s successes and failures, compare itself to other programs, and assess whether its students are prepared for industry work (Blom et al., 2012). In addition to the internal evaluation, a school or department’s accreditation status may influence students’ decisions when they weigh options that include rankings, athletics, and extracurricular activities (Blom et al., 2012; Pellegrini, 2017). These internal and external opportunities provide an incentive for schools and departments with public relations programs to pursue the accreditation with ACEJMC or certification through PRSA.
ACEJMC
Although ACEJMC does not define exactly how units design their programs, the organization outlines nine core standards for accreditation: 1. Mission, governance, and administration; 2. Curriculum and instruction; 3. Diversity and inclusiveness; 4. Full-time and part-time faculty; 5. Scholarship, which includes research, creative, and professional service; 6. Student services; 7. Resources, facilities, and equipment; 8. Professional and public service; 9. Assessment of learning outcomes (ACEJMC, n.d.-b). With each standard there is a basic principle and an outline of key indicators and evidence. These standards provide the rubric for how the programs are evaluated during the accreditation process. The process of accreditation happens every six years and programs complete a self-study before an accreditation team conducts a site visit. After the self-study and site visit, the national accrediting committee reviews the materials and votes, and then the national accrediting council takes final action (ACEJMC, n.d.-c).
PRSA Certification in Education for Public Relations (CEPR)
In 1989, the Public Relations Society of America established a certification for public relations programs through its educational affairs committee (PRSSA, 2020). Similar to the ACEJMC process, the CEPR requires programs to submit a self-assessment, followed by a site visit with two PRSA members. CEPR identifies eight standards, which include an analysis of the curriculum; faculty; resources, equipment, and facilities; students; assessment; professional affiliations; relationship with the unit and university; and perspectives on diversity and global public relations (PRSSA, 2020).
Value of Accreditation
Research suggests that most journalism and mass communication programs see accreditation as a path to reputation enhancement (Blom et al., 2012). There is no evidence to suggest that accredited schools are “better” than unaccredited schools, especially when it comes to social justice issues (e.g., human rights) (Blom et al., 2012; Reilly, 2018; Seamon, 2010). However, ethics is a key component attributed to professional and public service (ACEJMC) and curriculum and diversity and global perspectives (CEPR).
Pedagogy and Curricula
The previous standards review and research into accreditation suggests that incorporating ethics more robustly will be initiated by the professor or the school. In 1999, in one of the earliest PR pedagogy articles, Coombs and Rybacki synthesized survey results and conversations that emerged from a pedagogy task force team at the National Communication Association (NCA) summer conference on public relations education. Coombs and Rybacki (1999) concluded the public relations pedagogy was “steeped in active learning” (p. 55). At the time, PR professors placed an emphasis on bridging theory and practice through dynamic assignments, lessons, and outside-of-the-classroom opportunities (Coombs & Rybacki, 1999). Since this trailblazing article on public relations pedagogy, scholars have explored pedagogy through the lens of writing (e.g., Hardin & Pompper, 2004; Waymer, 2014), social media (e.g., Kim & Freberg, 2016), and international perspectives (e.g., Thompson, 2018).
Public Relations Curricula
Public relations scholars who study PR curriculum note that there has been a transition toward a more skills-based, professional focus (Auger & Cho, 2016). For some, the shift to a more professionally minded profession can erode what some believe is the purpose of higher education, which is to pursue knowledge for the sake of pursuing knowledge (Auger & Cho, 2016; Brint et al., 2005). Attempting to focus on skills-based lessons can result in the exclusion of topics such as race, globalization, and interdisciplinary perspectives (Auger & Cho, 2016).
A powerful indicator of curricula decisions and priorities can result from the organization in which a public relations program is housed. Public relations programs are sometimes housed in journalism and mass communication schools but are found equally in speech, liberal arts, and business departments and schools (Kruckeberg, 1998). In their study of 234 public relations programs, Auger and Cho (2016) found that more than half (57%) of PR programs were affiliated with the liberal arts and humanities and almost one-third (38%) were housed in communication and journalism schools.
For course offerings, Auger and Cho (2016) found that the liberal arts (53%) and journalism schools (57%) were more likely to offer ethics courses than the public relations programs housed in business schools (31%). The most common type of classes across the curricula were principles/introductory classes, mass communication theory, law, writing, campaigns, and research (Auger & Cho, 2016). Only 51% of programs offered a media ethics class in their curricula, while only 3% offered a specific public relations ethics course (Auger & Cho, 2016).
Public Relations Skills
As previously discussed, public relations curricula programs are often labeled as a practical field, meaning students can expect to encounter applicable hard and soft skills that they can transfer to their internships and professional careers. As McCleneghan (2006) suggests, “No other profession requires greater knowledge of ‘how to’ communicate than public relations” (p. 42). Almost every year some think-piece pitches a list of the most important skills PR students need to know once they graduate. For example, in 2013, The Guardian listed those skills as communication, research, writing, international mindset, and creativity (Turner, 2013). Seven years later in 2020, the media monitoring and social listening platform Meltwater identified the top 10 skills as: social media, copyrighting, management, multimedia and new media skills, analytics, visual branding, writing, virtual team management, and influencer collaboration (Garrett, 2020).
Public relations scholars have explored the topics of how relevant skills translate from the classroom into the professional world. For example, in 2014, Todd surveyed PRSA members on 24 quantitative categories divided into two subgroups, job skills and professional characteristics, to determine how prepared entry-level workers were for the workforce. The goal of this survey was to determine how Millennial (born between 1982-2002), entry-level workers rate themselves compared to their supervisors, and the survey’s 165 participants were asked to rank themselves or their entry-level employees on the following skills: writing, technology, research, social media, computer, job task preparation, and overall quality of work and performance (Todd, 2014). In addition to these practical skills, Todd (2014) identified professional characteristics (i.e., soft skills) that were key performance indicators in the public relations profession (e.g., awareness of ethics, creativity, cooperation, and time management). The “pressure to teach students the most relevant knowledge and skills to be industry-ready” is one that educators are familiar with, and assessments like these can illuminate how recent graduates are performing (Todd, 2014, p. 790).
The Commission on Public Relations Education (2018) found that writing is a core skill for future public relations professionals and should be included in every public relations class. In addition to writing, the report suggests that research remains a foundational skill with particular attention paid to data, analytics, and big data (CPRE, 2018). Finally, technology is seen as a “triple threat challenge” (i.e., educators must teach it, study it, and do it) (CPRE, 2018, p. 14). Along with these tangible skills, the report also stressed the need for the incorporation of ethics (CPRE, 2018).
Ethics as a Skill
Research suggests that educators, professionals, mentors, and advisers agree that ethics is a key skill for graduates (Eschenfelder, 2011). In public relations programs, ethics is often covered in principles, writing, campaigns, and case studies in the classroom and in textbooks (Hutchinson, 2002). These more traditional, static forms of learning ethics, however, might contribute to entry-level public relations professionals overestimating their ability to practice and understand ethical principles and their decision-making skills (Eschenfelder, 2011). Conway and Groshek (2009) suggest that students might gain more from interactive experiences through student media and internships, and Curtin et al. (2011) found that mentors (e.g., PRSA industry advisers and PRSSA faculty advisers) can influence younger workers as they consider ethical dilemmas (also see Todd, 2009). Furthermore, ethics competency is a skill that employers seek from new hires and one that educators feel compelled to teach (DiStaso et al., 2009). Unfortunately, employers rated their employees low on ethics skills (Todd, 2014). These studies suggest that the key to students gaining these skills outside of the classroom in meaningful ways is through dynamic coursework, such as service and project-based learning (e.g., McCollough, 2018), student-run agencies (e.g., Haley et al., 2016), and internships. According to experiential learning theory, this type of learning environment is vital for students as they understand and process experiences into knowledge.
Experiential Learning Theory
According to Dewey (1938) and other scholars of experiential learning theory (ELT), the theory is best understood as a “theory of experience” (Kolb & Kolb, 2005, p. 193). This work draws on learning as the “process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” and learning is the result of “grasping and transforming experience” (Kolb, 1984, p. 41). ELT focuses on the process rather than the outcome, and scholars of experiential learning theory identify six pillars that facilitate experience as a key component to human learning and development. These pillars can be summarized as: learning as a holistic process that creates knowledge; learning as relearning; and learning as a process that involves transactions between a person and their environment, which are primarily driven by finding solutions for conflict, difference, and disagreements (Kolb, 1984; Kolb & Kolb, 2005). Using ELT as a foundation in understanding knowledge acquisition, students can grasp experiences through concrete experience (apprehension) and abstract conceptualization (comprehension) and can transform through reflective observation (intension) and active experimentation (extension) (Baker et al., 2002; Fraustino et al., 2015; Kolb, 1984). These tactics work together and provide students with the experience of process: they can engage, internalize, observe and analyze, and then experiment with conclusions (Fraustino et al., 2015).
ELT and the Strategic Communication Classroom
Scholarship suggests that public relations professors and instructors are looking to incorporate ELT-driven lessons, assignments, and projects into the public relations classroom. For example, Fraustino et al. (2015) studied the relationship between Twitter chats and digital case studies (i.e., using the now defunct app Storify) and whether students apply public relations concepts to those practices. Other scholars have explored how students engage in teleworking in a cross-institutional setting (Madden et al., 2016), service learning and empathy (Everhart et al., 2016), public relations writing (Meganck & Smith, 2019), and learning about journalism storytelling through Instagram Stories (Byrd & Denney, 2018).
Research Questions
To understand the present state of ethics education at ACEJMC-accredited and CEPR-certified schools, the present study examines the following research questions:
RQ1: How do programs following both the ACEJMC and CEPR guidelines address ethics writ large in their curricula?
RQ2: How are ethics addressed in public-relations-specific courses in ACEJMC and CEPR accredited programs?
Method
To answer the research questions, we compiled a list of ACEJMC accredited programs (n = 112), PRSA CEPR programs (n = 40), and determined which programs were listed in both (n = 15). After we identified the 15 schools with ACEJMC accreditation and PRSA CEPR certification, we analyzed the 2020 programs of study and course catalogs to determine what kind of public relations program each school offered (e.g., major, concentration, or emphasis area), number of credit hours required inside and outside of the unit, if there were ethics-specific courses available and/or required, if there was a PR-ethics-specific course available and/or required, and which courses specifically mentioned ethics in their course descriptions. To achieve internal validity, the research team first coded three universities collectively and then each of the three researchers individually coded the four remaining schools.
The method of content analysis was chosen for multiple reasons. First, it provided an evidence-based analysis of the offerings and requirements of the programs. While previous studies regarding public relations education used a survey approach (DiStaso et al., 2009; Neill, 2017; Silverman et al., 2014), curriculum studies from other disciplines in mass communication found course descriptions to be a fruitful avenue for analysis (Spillman et al., 2017; Tanner et al., 2012). Second, as course names and descriptions are used as indicators of course content and catalogs as indicators of program requirements, their use here is congruent. Finally, content analysis proved to be an expeditious way to collect data, as some previous studies saw low response rates and used content analysis to supplement their data (e.g., Tanner et al., 2012).
Findings
To address RQ1, we examined the listings of required courses for the public relations programs at each school. Of the 15 schools, 10 offered public relations as a major, two as an emphasis area, two as a concentration, and one as a specialization. Most schools required students to complete 34-48 credit hours (with three schools requiring 48, and six schools requiring 36-39 credit hours) in public relations and related classes. Programs required as few as three and as many as 27 credit hours be taken outside of the major (e.g., business or statistics classes). Six schools required zero credit hours outside of the program.
Most schools taught elective ethics overall in the form of mass communication ethics, ethics and law, and/or media ethics courses (87%). Thirteen of the 15 schools offered one of these courses—tending to approach ethics similar to the University of Florida (n.d.-a), which described them as a cross-disciplinary introduction to study and practice. Fewer schools required students to take a general mass communication ethics class (67%). Thus, it is possible for a third of these public relations students to graduate without any department ethics training. Furthermore, 13% of students appeared to have no or limited access to ethics training within their major.
To answer RQ2, we analyzed the course descriptions for each of the programs. Only five universities offered an elective in PR-specific ethics (33%) and fewer schools required a public-relations-specific ethics course (20%). Drake University (n.d.-a) had an elective course called Cases in Ethical PR Practice that prepared students through “instruction and practice to execute professional-level thinking, analysis, writing and presentation skills needed for successful public relations campaign management” (Drake University, n.d.-b, para. 1). The University of Florida (n.d.-b) offered an Ethics and Professional Responsibility in Public Relations course, which focused on “ethical responsibilities of the public relations professional” (para. 1). This course provided knowledge and skills for study to “reach and justify ethical decisions,” which elicits “a sense of personal and professional responsibility” (para. 1).
The findings suggest that most students receive their ethics training through interdisciplinary study, focusing on the intersection of law, ethics, and mass communication professions (e.g., journalism, advertising, media studies). Public relations ethics, on the other hand, are more likely to be a learning objective or talking point in courses such as principles of/introduction to public relations, campaigns, and some case studies courses. Five programs addressed ethics in the course description for their Principles of Public Relations classes. These classes indicated topics will cover “ethics and social responsibility” (Syracuse University, n.d., para. 1) or “persuasion, media relations, crisis communication, reputation management, and ethics” (Indiana University, n.d., para. 2), many of which explored different ethical approaches and introduced students to codes of ethics (e.g., PRSA). This positioning indicates that schools recognize the need to introduce ethics early.
Some schools engaged with ethics instruction and scholarship through journalism, multimedia, or advertising classes. The University of Memphis (n.d.), for example, offered an elective class for public relations students in multimedia storytelling in which students could expect to learn and understand “legal and ethical issues in photography” (para. 1). The University of Wisconsin at Oshkosh (n.d.) offered a course in Special Topics in Writing/Editing, which addressed several topics, including media ethics.
These findings indicate that although ethics is an important part of a public relations student’s curricula, there is an opportunity to expand this offering of public-relations-specific ethics courses.
Discussion
After analyzing the programs at 15 ACEJMC and PRSA CEPR schools, this study’s findings suggest there is room for growth regarding public relations ethics education. Through our analysis of selected public relations programs, we have concluded that public relations programs need to revisit their PR ethics requirements. Given ACEJMC accredited and PRSA certified schools have chosen to hold themselves to higher standards, they must be leaders in adopting the CPRE and PRSA recommendations for PR ethics training. Based on their accreditation and certification and the standards of both, the 15 programs in our study should be leading the way on teaching ethics and providing students with the dynamic opportunities to engage the subject matter. The fact that 80% of students might graduate without a PR ethics course and a third of students can graduate without an ethics course at all, sets students up for difficulty in the industry upon graduation. As employers expect ethical knowledge in their hires, universities need to respond by providing ethics training to students.
Experiential Learning Theory in the Ethics Classroom
The CPRE (2018) report outlines a new course proposal summary for faculty and administrators wishing to build a new PR ethics class based on the recommendations from the undergraduate education report. The report outlines key outcomes and assessment metrics, which include written assignments, class discussions, quizzes, exams, presentations, and projects (Bortree et al., 2019). The provided catalog descriptions focus on students engaging in “discussions and case studies” and being able to “apply learning from the course to an original case study paper” (Bortree et al., 2019, p. 3). In addition, courses should “bridge cultural applications and offer practical insights on how communicators . . . might develop communication strategies that uphold ethical principles” (Bortree et al., 2019, p. 3).
The active language used in these course and catalog descriptions and the proposed assignments suggest that an experiential learning approach would be best suited for the instruction of PR ethics. Research suggests that lectures on ethics are not as valuable as case studies (Canary, 2007; Todd, 2009), and many students are receiving their ethical training through internships and mentors (Conway & Groshek, 2009; Curtin et al., 2011; Todd, 2014). Although internships and real-world opportunities are wonderful learning tools for students, there is little guarantee that ethics will be practiced in a consistent manner, which makes these environments a challenge.
For many internships and mentor-driven relationships, the outcome might outweigh the process. Given that experiential learning is process-driven and, as Kolb and Kolb (2005) describe, “a theory of experience” (p. 193), students must be exposed to ethics through a number of different processes and experiences. Our findings indicate that most conversations around ethics are happening in siloed spaces, such as in relationships with the law or as a dedicated week during an introduction to a public relations class. For students to grasp and transform experiences around ethical dilemmas and cases, approaching the subject manner in a way that lets them work together and experience the process is key for entry-level public relations professionals developing the critical thinking needed for this important skill (Eschenfelder, 2011). A standalone ethics course would be a major step toward resolving these issues and would answer the call for greater ethics education from previous research (DiStaso et al., 2009; Neill, 2017; Silverman et al., 2014).
Conclusion
Based on the previous research presented in this study and our own findings, we recommend that public relations programs implement and require a case-study-based public relations ethics course for their advanced-level students. This class should be completed at a level greater than foundational public relations courses and should draw on real work to provide students with the opportunity to grasp and transform the experience of an ethical situation. In this course, students can process the dilemma, engage, internalize, observe and analyze, and experiment with different conclusions (see Fraustino et al., 2015).
In addition to a case study class, professors and administrators should consider including the word ethics in course descriptions for experiential learning courses, client work, and capstone classes (e.g., internships, student-run agencies, research, and campaigns). Addressing ethics in all facets of a student’s education and creating a specific public-relations-centered ethics course would help students graduate with a more robust understanding of what it means to be an ethical public relations professional.
The present study is limited in its scope by only examining ACEJMC and CEPR programs. Although the population of universities utilized in this study makes sense for examining those at the highest standards, further investigation across both review bodies would present a clearer picture of the state of public relations education. Future studies should examine these schools as well as public relations programs without certification or accreditation.
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